Medicinal plants used to treat "African" diseases by the local communities of Bwambara sub-county in Rukungiri District, Western Uganda.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: In Africa, traditional medicine encompasses a diverse range of practices, including herbalism and spiritualism, where some diseases are believed to be "African" since they can only be traditionally treated. Indigenous knowledge on the management of "African" diseases using medicinal plants is still handed down orally from generation to generation by tribal societies of tropical Africa, and with the rapid westernization of these societies there is a pressing need to record local knowledge before it is lost forever. AIM: This study documented medicinal plant species associated with the management of "African" diseases by the local communities of Bwambara sub-county in Rukungiri district, Western Uganda. METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted using semi-structured questionnaires and interviews. The data collected included names of plant species, plant parts used, diseases treated, methods of preparation, and mode of administration of the herbal remedies. A total of 196 informants participated in the study. Data were analyzed and presented using descriptive statistics and the Informant consensus factor. RESULTS: We documented 67 medicinal plant species distributed over 27 families and 62 genera. The most commonly reported species belong to Asteraceae family. The most frequently used medicinal species were Chenopodium opulifolium (27), Sesbania sesban (26), Thevetia peruviana (25), Leonotis nepetifolia (23), Momordica foetida (23), Euphorbia hirta (21) and Cassia mimosoides (20). Leaves were the most commonly used plants parts and decoctions were the main method of preparation. Water was the main medium used for the preparation of the remedies which were administered orally while petroleum jelly was the main medium for those which were used as ointments. The medicinal plant species reported are used to treat 39 conditions which were clustered into 10 International Classification of Primary Care (ICPC) disease categories. There is a high degree of consensus among the informants on which medicinal plant species they use for different diseases especially disorders in the following categories: neurological (FIC = 0.90), general and unspecified (FIC = 0.87), digestive (FIC = 0.86) and female genital (FIC = 0.82). CONCLUSION: Local communities of Bwambara sub-county in Rukungiri district, Western Uganda use a rich diversity of medicinal plant species in the management of various "African" diseases. Therefore, collaboration between users of medicinal plants and scientists is paramount, to help in the discovery of new drugs based on indigenous knowledge.

The traditional use of southern African medicinal plants for the treatment of bacterial respiratory diseases: A review of the ethnobotany and scientific evaluations.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Multiple plant species were used traditionally in southern Africa to treat bacterial respiratory diseases. This review summarises this usage and highlights plant species that are yet to be verified for these activities. AIM OF THE STUDY: This manuscript reviews the traditional usage of southern African plant species to treat bacterial respiratory diseases with the aim of highlighting gaps in the literature and focusing future studies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An extensive review of ethnobotanical books, reviews and primary scientific studies was undertaken to identify southern African plants which are used in traditional southern African medicine to treat bacterial respiratory diseases. We also searched for southern African plants whose inhibitory activity against bacterial respiratory pathogens has been conmfirmed, to highlight gaps in the literature and focus future studies. RESULTS: One hundred and eighty-seven southern African plant species are recorded as traditional therapies for bacterial respiratory infections. Scientific evaluations of 178 plant species were recorded, although only 42 of these were selected for screening on the basis of their ethnobotanical uses. Therefore, the potential of 146 species used teraditionally to treat bacterial respiratory diseases are yet to be verified. CONCLUSIONS: The inhibitory properties of southern African medicinal plants against bacterial respiratory pathogens is relatively poorly explored and the antibacterial activity of most plant species remains to be verified.

[Ethnic and racial inequalities in hospital admissions due to avoidable causes in under-five Brazilian children, 2009-2014]. / Iniquidades étnico-raciais nas hospitalizações por causas evitáveis em menores de cinco anos no Brasil, 2009-2014.

There has been a global increase in hospital admissions for primary care-sensitive conditions (PCSCs) as an indicator of effectiveness in primary health care. This article analyzes ethnic and racial inequalities in cause-related hospitalizations in under-five children in Brazil as a whole and the country's five major geographic regions, with an emphasis on PCSCs and acute respiratory infections (ARIs). Using data from the Hospital Information Systems of the Brazilian Unified National Health System (SIH/SUS), 2009-2014, the authors calculated proportions, rates, and rate ratios for PCSCs, adjusted by sex and age after multiple imputation of missing data on color/race. The principal causes of hospitalization were respiratory tract infections (37.4%) and infectious and parasitic diseases (19.3%), and indigenous children were proportionally the most affected. Crude PCSC rates (per 1,000) were highest in indigenous children (97.3; 95%CI: 95.3-99.2), followed by brown or mixed-raced children (40.0; 95%CI: 39.8-40.1), while the lowest rates were in Asiandescendant children (14.8; 95%CI: 14.1-15.5). The highest adjusted rate ratios for PCSCs were seen among indigenous children compared to white children - 5.7 (95%CI: 3.9-8.4) for Brazil as a whole, reaching 5.9 (95%CI: 5.0-7.1) and 18.5 (95%CI: 16.5-20.7) in the North and Central, respectively, compared to white children. ARIs remained as important causes of pediatric hospitalizations in Brazil. Alarming ethnic and racial inequalities were observed in PCSCs, with indigenous children at a disadvantage. Improvements are needed in living conditions, sanitation, and subsistence, as well as guaranteed timely access to high-quality primary health care in the more vulnerable population groups, especially the indigenous peoples of the North and Central, in order to mitigate the health inequalities and meet the guidelines of the SUS and the Brazilian Constitution.

Internacionalmente, observa-se um incremento no uso das internações por condições sensíveis à atenção primária (ICSAP) como indicador de efetividade da atenção primária à saúde. Este artigo analisa as iniquidades étnico-raciais nas internações por causas em menores de cinco anos no Brasil e regiões, com ênfase nas ICSAP e nas infecções respiratórias agudas (IRA). Com dados do Sistema de Informações Hospitalares do Sistema Único de Saúde (SIH/SUS), 2009-2014, calcularam-se proporções por causas, taxas e razões de taxas de ICSAP ajustadas por sexo e idade após a imputação múltipla de dados faltantes de cor/raça. As principais causas de internação foram doenças do aparelho respiratório (37,4%) e infecciosas e parasitárias (19,3%), sendo as crianças indígenas as mais acometidas. As taxas brutas de ICSAP (por 1.000) foram mais elevadas em indígenas (97,3; IC95%: 95,3-99,2), seguidas das pardas (40,0; IC95%: 39,8-40,1), e as menores foram nas amarelas (14,8; IC95%: 14,1-15,5). As maiores razões de taxas ajustadas de ICSAP foram registradas entre crianças de cor/raça indígena e branca - 5,7 (IC95%: 3,9-8,4) no país, atingindo 5,9 (IC95%: 5,0-7,1) e 18,5 (IC95%: 16,5-20,7) no Norte e Centro-oeste, respectivamente. As IRA permanecem como importantes causas de hospitalização em crianças no Brasil. Foram observadas alarmantes iniquidades étnico-raciais nas taxas de ICSAP, com situação de desvantagem para indígenas. São necessárias melhorias nas condições de vida, saneamento e subsistência, bem como garantia de acesso oportuno e qualificado à atenção primária à saúde das populações mais vulneráveis, com destaque para os indígenas no Norte e no Centro-oeste, a fim de minimizar iniquidades em saúde e fazer cumprir as diretrizes do SUS e da Constituição do Brasil.

Internacionalmente, se observa un incremento en las hospitalizaciones por condiciones sensibles a la atención primaria (ICSAP), como un indicador de efectividad de la atención primaria a la salud. Este artículo analiza las inequidades étnico-raciales en las hospitalizaciones por causas evitables em menores de cinco años en Brasil y sus regiones, con énfasis en las ICSAP y en las infecciones respiratorias agudas (IRA). Con datos del Sistema de Informaciones Hospitalarias del Sistema Único de Salud (SIH/SUS), 2009-2014, se calcularon porcentajes por causas, tasas y razones de tasas de ICSAP ajustadas por sexo y edad, tras la imputación múltiple de datos faltantes de color/raza. Las principales causas de hospitalización fueron enfermedades del aparato respiratório (37,4%) e infecciosas y parasitarias (19,3%), siendo los niños indígenas los más afectados. Las tasas brutas de ICSAP (por 1.000) fueron más elevadas en indígenas (97,3; IC95%: 95,3-99,2), seguidas de las mulatos/mestizos (40,0; IC95%: 39,8-40,1), mientras que las menores fueron en las de origen asiática (14,8; IC95%: 14,1-15,5). Las mayores razones de tasas ajustadas de ICSAP fueron en los niños indígenas comparados a los niños de color/raza blanca - 5,7 (IC95%: 3,9-8,4) en el país, alcanzando 5,9 (IC95%: 5,0-7,1) y 18,5 (IC95%: 16,5-20,7) en el Norte y Centro-oeste, respectivamente, en comparación con El color/raza blanca. Las IRA permanecen como importantes causas de hospitalización en niños em Brasil. Se observaron alarmantes inequidades étnico-raciales en las tasas de ICSAP, con situación de desventaja para los indígenas. Se necesitan mejoras en las condiciones de vida, saneamiento y subsistencia, así como la garantía de un acceso oportuno y cualificado a la atención primaria a La salud de las poblaciones más vulnerables, destacando los indígenas en el Norte y Centro-oeste, a fin de minimizar inequidades en salud y hacer cumplir las directrices del SUS y de la Constitución de Brasil.

[Analysis of the epidemiological profile of the indigenous community of Hueyapan, Morelos]. / Análisis del perfil epidemiológico de la comunidad indígena de Hueyapan, Morelos.

BACKGROUND: The epidemiological transition is a phenomenon that has had a different impact between urban and rural settings. The WHO points out that the population with the lowest socioeconomic status is the most adversely affected for the unequal distribution of resources, indigenous people are a part of this population. OBJECTIVE: To analyze the epidemiological profile of the indigenous people of Hueyapan, Morelos during the months of March to June 2017. METHODS: A cross-sectional epidemiological study was carried out in the indigenous community of Hueyapan, belonging to the municipality of Morelos, in 2017. A sample of 338 households was calculated; as inclusion criteria, those dwellings where the age of residence in Hueyapan was equal to or greater than four years were taken; a systematic sampling was carried out every three households, in addition, Mexico's INEGI and Health Department databases were analyzed from 2011 to 2015. RESULTS: In relation to morbidity, an upward trend was found in the crude rate, from 119.7 per 1,000 in 2011 to 270.7 per 1000 in 2015, among the most prevalent diseases in those years, infectious diseases were identified as major and the appearance of noncommunicable diseases began to be observed. In relation to mortality, a linear trend was observed in the crude rate of 5.7 per 1000 in 2011 to 6.6 per 1000 in 2015. CONCLUSIONS: The epidemiological profile of Hueyapan coincides with a process of epidemiological transition where there is a double burden of disease. This suggests a challenge for the public health area that should be addressed from the creation of health strategies, programs and policies aimed at this population from an intercultural approach.

INTRODUCCIÓN: la transición epidemiológica es un fenómeno que se ha presentado de forma distinta entre sectores urbanizados y rurales. OBJETIVO: analizar el perfil epidemiológico de la comunidad indígena de Hueyapan, Morelos, durante el periodo de marzo a junio de 2017. MÉTODOS: se realizó un estudio epidemiológico transversal en la comunidad indígena de Hueyapan, perteneciente al municipio de Morelos, en 2017. Se calculó un tamaño de muestra de 338 viviendas; como criterios de inclusión se tomaron aquellas viviendas dónde la edad de residencia en Hueyapan fuera igual o mayor a cuatro años; se realizó un muestreo sistemático cada tres viviendas, además se analizaron bases de datos de INEGI y Secretaría de Salud de 2011 a 2015. RESULTADOS: en relación con la morbilidad, se encontró una tendencia ascendente en la tasa bruta. Dentro de las enfermedades más prevalentes se identificaron las enfermedades infecciosas como principales y se empezó a observar la aparición de enfermedades no transmisibles. En relación con la mortalidad, se observó una tendencia lineal en su tasa bruta. CONCLUSIONES: el perfil epidemiológico de Hueyapan coincide con un proceso de transición epidemiológica, donde existe una doble carga de enfermedad. Esto sugiere un reto para el área de la salud pública que debiera enfrentarse desde la creación de estrategias, programas y políticas de salud dirigidas a esta población desde un enfoque intercultural.

Iniquidades étnico-raciais nas hospitalizações por causas evitáveis em menores de cinco anos no Brasil, 2009-2014 / Ethnic and racial inequalities in hospital admissions due to avoidable causes in under-five Brazilian children, 2009-2014 / Inequidades étnico-raciales en las hospitalizaciones por causas evitables en menores de cinco años en Brasil, 2009-2014

Resumo: Internacionalmente, observa-se um incremento no uso das internações por condições sensíveis à atenção primária (ICSAP) como indicador de efetividade da atenção primária à saúde. Este artigo analisa as iniquidades étnico-raciais nas internações por causas em menores de cinco anos no Brasil e regiões, com ênfase nas ICSAP e nas infecções respiratórias agudas (IRA). Com dados do Sistema de Informações Hospitalares do Sistema Único de Saúde (SIH/SUS), 2009-2014, calcularam-se proporções por causas, taxas e razões de taxas de ICSAP ajustadas por sexo e idade após a imputação múltipla de dados faltantes de cor/raça. As principais causas de internação foram doenças do aparelho respiratório (37,4%) e infecciosas e parasitárias (19,3%), sendo as crianças indígenas as mais acometidas. As taxas brutas de ICSAP (por 1.000) foram mais elevadas em indígenas (97,3; IC95%: 95,3-99,2), seguidas das pardas (40,0; IC95%: 39,8-40,1), e as menores foram nas amarelas (14,8; IC95%: 14,1-15,5). As maiores razões de taxas ajustadas de ICSAP foram registradas entre crianças de cor/raça indígena e branca - 5,7 (IC95%: 3,9-8,4) no país, atingindo 5,9 (IC95%: 5,0-7,1) e 18,5 (IC95%: 16,5-20,7) no Norte e Centro-oeste, respectivamente. As IRA permanecem como importantes causas de hospitalização em crianças no Brasil. Foram observadas alarmantes iniquidades étnico-raciais nas taxas de ICSAP, com situação de desvantagem para indígenas. São necessárias melhorias nas condições de vida, saneamento e subsistência, bem como garantia de acesso oportuno e qualificado à atenção primária à saúde das populações mais vulneráveis, com destaque para os indígenas no Norte e no Centro-oeste, a fim de minimizar iniquidades em saúde e fazer cumprir as diretrizes do SUS e da Constituição do Brasil.

Abstract: There has been a global increase in hospital admissions for primary care-sensitive conditions (PCSCs) as an indicator of effectiveness in primary health care. This article analyzes ethnic and racial inequalities in cause-related hospitalizations in under-five children in Brazil as a whole and the country's five major geographic regions, with an emphasis on PCSCs and acute respiratory infections (ARIs). Using data from the Hospital Information Systems of the Brazilian Unified National Health System (SIH/SUS), 2009-2014, the authors calculated proportions, rates, and rate ratios for PCSCs, adjusted by sex and age after multiple imputation of missing data on color/race. The principal causes of hospitalization were respiratory tract infections (37.4%) and infectious and parasitic diseases (19.3%), and indigenous children were proportionally the most affected. Crude PCSC rates (per 1,000) were highest in indigenous children (97.3; 95%CI: 95.3-99.2), followed by brown or mixed-raced children (40.0; 95%CI: 39.8-40.1), while the lowest rates were in Asiandescendant children (14.8; 95%CI: 14.1-15.5). The highest adjusted rate ratios for PCSCs were seen among indigenous children compared to white children - 5.7 (95%CI: 3.9-8.4) for Brazil as a whole, reaching 5.9 (95%CI: 5.0-7.1) and 18.5 (95%CI: 16.5-20.7) in the North and Central, respectively, compared to white children. ARIs remained as important causes of pediatric hospitalizations in Brazil. Alarming ethnic and racial inequalities were observed in PCSCs, with indigenous children at a disadvantage. Improvements are needed in living conditions, sanitation, and subsistence, as well as guaranteed timely access to high-quality primary health care in the more vulnerable population groups, especially the indigenous peoples of the North and Central, in order to mitigate the health inequalities and meet the guidelines of the SUS and the Brazilian Constitution.

Resumen: Internacionalmente, se observa un incremento en las hospitalizaciones por condiciones sensibles a la atención primaria (ICSAP), como un indicador de efectividad de la atención primaria a la salud. Este artículo analiza las inequidades étnico-raciales en las hospitalizaciones por causas evitables em menores de cinco años en Brasil y sus regiones, con énfasis en las ICSAP y en las infecciones respiratorias agudas (IRA). Con datos del Sistema de Informaciones Hospitalarias del Sistema Único de Salud (SIH/SUS), 2009-2014, se calcularon porcentajes por causas, tasas y razones de tasas de ICSAP ajustadas por sexo y edad, tras la imputación múltiple de datos faltantes de color/raza. Las principales causas de hospitalización fueron enfermedades del aparato respiratório (37,4%) e infecciosas y parasitarias (19,3%), siendo los niños indígenas los más afectados. Las tasas brutas de ICSAP (por 1.000) fueron más elevadas en indígenas (97,3; IC95%: 95,3-99,2), seguidas de las mulatos/mestizos (40,0; IC95%: 39,8-40,1), mientras que las menores fueron en las de origen asiática (14,8; IC95%: 14,1-15,5). Las mayores razones de tasas ajustadas de ICSAP fueron en los niños indígenas comparados a los niños de color/raza blanca - 5,7 (IC95%: 3,9-8,4) en el país, alcanzando 5,9 (IC95%: 5,0-7,1) y 18,5 (IC95%: 16,5-20,7) en el Norte y Centro-oeste, respectivamente, en comparación con El color/raza blanca. Las IRA permanecen como importantes causas de hospitalización en niños em Brasil. Se observaron alarmantes inequidades étnico-raciales en las tasas de ICSAP, con situación de desventaja para los indígenas. Se necesitan mejoras en las condiciones de vida, saneamiento y subsistencia, así como la garantía de un acceso oportuno y cualificado a la atención primaria a La salud de las poblaciones más vulnerables, destacando los indígenas en el Norte y Centro-oeste, a fin de minimizar inequidades en salud y hacer cumplir las directrices del SUS y de la Constitución de Brasil.

Plantas medicinais indicadas para gripes e resfriados no sul do Brasil / Medicinal plants indicated for flu and colds in the South of Brazil

Buscou-se conhecer as plantas medicinais utilizadas para gripes e resfriados por agricultores da região Sul do Rio Grande do Sul e compará-las com evidências científicas. Estudo descritivo realizado com 12 moradores agricultores da Ilha dos Marinheiros, no município de Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Utilizou-se a análise descritiva, comparando os resultados com a literatura científica. Foram citadas 13 plantas utilizadas para gripes e resfriados: Achyrocline satureioides, Allium sativum, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Citrus limon, Citrus reticulata, Citrus sinensis, Gochnatia polymorpha, Illicium verum, Mentha piperita, Mikania sp., Ocimum selloi, Origanum majorana e Verbena sp. Os resultados mostraram que o conhecimento popular vai ao encontro das evidências científicas para a maioria das indicações, visto que 84,6% das plantas citadas estão condizentes com a literatura. Desta maneira, enfatiza-se a riqueza do saber popular, a necessidade de sua valorização e constante aproximação dos profissionais de saúde a este saber, integrado ao científico.

We sought to know the medicinal plants used for flu and colds by farmers from the South of Rio Grande do Sul State and to compare it with scientific evidence. This descriptive study was conducted with 12 farmers living at Ilha dos Marinheiros, in the city of Rio Grande, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. We used descriptive analysis, comparing the results with the scientific literature. Thirteen plants were cited as used for cold and flu: Achyrocline satureioides, Allium sativum, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Citrus limon, Citrus reticulata, Citrus sinensis, Gochnatia polymorpha, Illicium verum, Mentha piperita, Mikania sp., Ocimum selloi, Origanum majorana and Verbena sp. Results show popular knowledge meeting scientific evidence for most indications, seen that 84,6% of cited plants are in agreement with the literature. Thus, we emphasize the richness of popular knowledge, the need of its appreciation and constant approximation of health professionals to this knowledge, integrated with science.

n-3 Long-chain PUFAs reduce respiratory morbidity caused by iron supplementation in iron-deficient South African schoolchildren: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled intervention.

BACKGROUND: Although iron supplementation in malaria-free areas mostly reduces infectious morbidity, it can sometimes increase morbidity from infections as a result of the dependence of pathogenic microorganisms on iron. Supplementation with n-3 (ω-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) improved morbidity in several human studies. However, information on the combined effect of iron and n-3 LCPUFA supplementation on infectious morbidity is limited. OBJECTIVE: We determined whether n-3 LCPUFAs and iron supplementation, alone or in combination, affected absenteeism and illness in iron-deficient schoolchildren with low fish intake. DESIGN: A total of 321 South African children (aged 6-11 y) with iron deficiency (ID) were randomly divided into 4 groups to receive 1) iron plus placebo, 2) a mixture of docosahexaenoic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid (DHA/EPA) plus placebo, 3) iron plus DHA/EPA, or 4) placebo plus placebo as oral supplements 4 times/wk for 8.5 mo. Morbidity was recorded, and iron-status indexes were measured. The total phospholipid fatty acid composition of peripheral blood mononuclear cell membranes was analyzed in a subsample (n = 130). RESULTS: Iron supplementation increased the number of days with illness when all symptoms were considered (B: 0.87; 95% CI: 0.71, 1.03) as well as illness that was specifically caused by respiratory symptoms (B: 1.45; 95% CI: 1.21, 1.70), whereas DHA/EPA reduced the number of days with illness at school (B: -0.96; 95% CI: -1.33, -0.59). The increases caused by iron were reduced to the levels seen in the placebo plus placebo group when iron was provided in combination with DHA/EPA as indicated by significant iron × DHA/EPA interactions (both P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Iron supplementation increased morbidity (mostly respiratory) in iron-deficient South African schoolchildren with low DHA/EPA intake, but when iron was given in combination with DHA/EPA, this effect was prevented.

Morbidity and nutrition patterns of three nomadic pastoralist communities of Chad.

As a part of an interdisciplinary research and action programme, morbidity and nutritional patterns were assessed in three nomadic communities: Fulani and Arab cattle breeders and Arab camel breeders, of two prefectures in Chad. The predominant morbidity pattern of Chadian nomadic pastoralists (representing approximately 10% of the total population of the country) had not been documented so far. A total of 1092 women, men and children was examined by a physician and interviewed during two surveys in the dry season and one in the wet season (1999--2000). Participants with no complaint were rare. Pulmonary disorders (e.g. bronchitis) were most often diagnosed for children under 5 years of age. Of the adult participants, 4.6% were suspected of tuberculosis. Febrile diarrhoea occurred more often during the wet season when access to clean drinking water was precarious. Malaria was only rarely clinically diagnosed among Arabs during the dry season, whereas Fulani, who stayed in the vicinity of Lake Chad, were also affected during this period. A 24-h dietary recall showed that less Arab women than men consumed milk during the dry season (66% versus 92%). Malnutrition was only documented for 3 out of 328 children (0--14 years). Arab women in childbearing age had a higher proportion of children not surviving when compared to Fulani women (0.2 versus 0.07). This study identified several implications for reseach and interventions in nomadic settings. Innovative and integrated health services for nomads can possibly be extended to many settings as nomadic pastoralists have in common a similar way of life driven by the needs of their animals.

Creencias sobre infecciones respiratorias aguda en niños menores de cinco años: estudio etnográfico en dos comunidades indígenas del estado de Oaxaca / Beliefs on acute respiratory infection in children younger than five years old: ethnographic study in two indigenous communities of the State of Oaxaca

Introducción. En México se ha logrado disminuir la mortalidad por infecciones respiratorias agudas, en un 41.5 por ciento de 1990 a 1997. El descenso no ha sido mayor, porque los grupos indígenas y marginados siguen manteniendo altas tasas de mortalidad. Material y métodos. Estudio etnográfico, realizado en dos comunidades indígenas una mixteca y otra zapoteca de diferentes regiones del estado de Oaxaca. Población de estudio: 24 madres mixtecas y 15 zapotecas entre 15 y 65 años, con uno o más niños menores de cinco años. Se les aplicaron dos cuestionarios: uno, semi-abierto y otro socioeconómico, traducidos oralmente por personas de las comunidades. Objetivo. Conocer ¿cómo las madres de dos comunidades indígenas de diferentes regiones del estado de Oaxaca perciben e identifican a las infecciones respiratorias agudas y a qué prácticas médicas recurren? Resultados. En la comunidad mixteca, ninguna madre reconoció la neumonía, y en la zapoteca sólo un tercio. De las infecciones respiratorias agudas superiores, la mayoría de ambas comunidades, reconoce principalmente al resfriado común. Para la atención de las enfermedades, recurren a tres acciones: tradicional, doméstica y automedicación. Ninguna madre mencionó el uso de antibióticos. Sólo cuando sus hijos tienen una infección respiratoria aguda grave, acuden a la clínica oficial. Conclusión. El desconocimiento de las percepciones maternas del proceso salud-enfermedad-atención de las infecciones respiratorias agudas, puede hacer que las actividades de capacitación, para su prevención y control, planeadas bajo la concepción occidental del modelo biomédico les resulten ajenas, contribuyendo a mantener la morbilidad y mortalidad en sus comunidades

Acute respiratory infections--mothers' perceptions of etiology and treatment in south-western Nigeria.

The focus of this research was on what mothers do when their children suffer from ARI at household level in rural settlements in Oyo State, Nigeria. A total of 419 mothers were interviewed. The study has combined three research methods, namely semi-structured questionnaire, in-depth interview and focus group discussion to get an insight into their perceptions in relation to cause and treatment of the disease. Most mothers regard ARI episodes as ordinary coughs and colds. They strongly believe that these are mostly caused by exposure to cold and perceive coldness of the body as a causal 'agent', whereas none of them mention viral or bacterial agents. The reported dominating practice of mothers was either the use of irritants to get rid of the cause of the disease ('coldness') through vomiting, by forcing the child to swallow bitter remedies such as cow urine, or to use a remedy with warming and soothing properties.'Robb', a methyl salicylate--probably the most popular Nigerian ointment-appeared to be the drug of choice to 'warm the chest, both from outside and inside', either applied topically or dissolved in hot water to drink. The paper emphasizes the importance of behavioural and social science type studies to get closer to community perceptions of disease etiology and practices as a prerequisite for contextualized health education. The use of inappropriate administration of remedies should be discouraged. Marketing of medicinal drug products for inappropriate indications also needs to be controlled.

Ethnographic studies of ARI in Bolivia and their use by the national ARI programme.

Acute respiratory infections (ARI) are responsible for one quarter to one third of all deaths in infants and young children, with most deaths being attributed to pneumonia. At present, few measures exist to prevent pneumonia. However, most pneumonia deaths can be averted by treatment with an appropriate antibiotic. The effectiveness of this strategy depends on families' ability to recognize the signs of pneumonia, and to promptly seek care from a trained health practitioner. In order for health workers to communicate effectively with families about how to care for children with ARI, what signs to watch for, and when to come back for care, they need to know how families perceive and respond to respiratory infections. The WHO ARI Programme has recently developed a research protocol for conducting ethnographic studies of community perceptions and practices related to ARI. The purpose of this protocol is describe communities' explanatory models for ARI, identify cultural and other factors that facilitate or constrain appropriate home care and careseeking for children with ARI, and make recommendations to national ARI programmes about how to develop effective communication activities. This paper reports on two studies conducted in Bolivia using the WHO/ARI Focused Ethnographic Study (FES) protocol, and describes the way in which the data were utilized by the national ARI programme.

An ethnographic study of acute respiratory infections in four local government areas of Nigeria.

An ethnographic study was conducted in four local government areas of Nigeria. The techniques of informal unstructured interviews and participant observation were used. A total of 104 focus group discussions with 53 groups of mothers, 21 groups of grandmothers, and 30 groups of fathers were conducted. Perception of causes of ARI ranged from cold water, to heredity, poor hygiene, exposure to smoke and dust and the supernatural forces. Preventive measures described were related to the perceived causes. For those groups that discussed home remedies to the treatment of ARI, the remedies described for cough included herbal drinks (39% of groups); honey with lemon (19.5%); eating specific vegetables believed to relieve cough (8.4%); and preparations containing palm oil (21.7%). Remedies described for measles included herbal drinks (62%); local tropical creams (24%); and palm wine (13.7%). Those for ear infections included drops of herbal mixtures in the ear (29.4%); putting various type of oil in the ear (38%); plugging the ear with cotton wool previously dipped in honey, or alcohol (17%). The findings of this study have implications for the Health Education Component of the National ARI Control Programm which Nigeria recently embarked upon. There is also the need for research on the efficacy and any possible adverse effects of identified home remedies.

PIP: An ethnographic study was conducted in four local government areas of Nigeria. The techniques of informal unstructured interviews and participant observation were used. A total of 104 focus group discussions with 53 groups of mothers, 21 groups of grandmothers, and 30 groups of fathers were conducted. Perception of causes of ARI ranged from cold water, to heredity, poor hygiene, exposure to smoke and dust and the supernatural forces. Preventive measures described were related to the perceived causes. For those groups that discussed home remedies to the treatment of ARI, the remedies described for cough included herbal drinks (39% of groups); honey with lemon (19.5%); eating specific vegetables believed to relieve cough (8.4%); and preparations containing palm oil (21.7%). Remedies described for measles included herbal drinks (62%); local tropical creams (24%); and palm wine (13.7%). Those for ear infections included drops of herbal mixtures in the ear (38%); plugging the ear with cotton wool previously dipped in honey, or alcohol (17%). The findings of this study have implications for the Health Education Component of the National ARI Control program which Nigeria recently embarked upon. There is also the need for research on the efficacy and any possible adverse effects of identified home remedies. (author's)