Legacy of Syriac-Aramaic Scholars in Transmitting Neurosurgical Knowledge Between Antiquity and the Middle Ages.

The link between ancient Greek medicine and the Arabic translation period in the 9th century cannot be understood without studying the contributions of Syriac scholars. With their mastery of Greek and the related Semitic languages of Syriac and Arabic, they initiated a scientific translation process with methods that prevail to this day. In this paper, we reviewed Hunayn Ibn Isshaq's Ten Treatises on the Eye to elucidate the original contributions of the Syriac physicians to the field of neurologic surgery. We analyzed the oldest known diagram of orbital anatomy along with Hunayn's genuine ideas on the optic nerve anatomy and pathology, optic chiasm, afferent pupillary reflex, and papilledema and venous congestion. We also reviewed the neurosurgical elements found in the Syriac Book of Medicines including the thought process in localizing neurologic deficits based on clinical experience and anatomic dissections and the earliest recorded description of brachial plexus pathology.

Professors, principals and textbooks from the Midwifery school in Zadar.

Midwifery in Dalmatia was highly undeveloped at the beginning of the XIX century. The health report from 1813 suggested that there were only 48 midwives in the whole province, and none of them with a degree from the midwifery school. After abolishing the Central Schools ("Ecoles Centrales"), which were founded at the time of French reign, and which had the university range, the professors who stayed in Zadar continued their work and teaching in the Midwifery School, which was founded in 1820 according to the decision made by Emperor Franz I, and started working in 1821. Since the school was working continuously for the whole century, a lot of professors and principals passed through. Protomedicus of Dalmatia officially performed the duty of principals of the Midwifery School. Their life and work biographies were gathered in this paper. Although the newcomers were mostly illiterate, very contemporary and valuable textbooks were used at that time. The professors of this school wrote some of these textbooks. This paper analyses those textbooks from the current medical science and praxis point of view, which points out to its significance and contribution of its authors to the reputation that the School enjoyed at that time.

A review on different English versions of an ancient classic of Chinese medicine: Huang Di Nei Jing.

Huang Di Nei Jing (Nei Jing), one of the most important classical texts of traditional Chinese medicine, is the foundation upon which today's Chinese medicine principles are built. This seminal ancient classic has been translated into English many times by different scholars worldwide. The authors have found thirteen English versions, each of which has its own distinctive features. By reviewing different versions and research achievements of the English translation, the authors try to summarize the translation style, purpose, content and other features of each version, and point out each translation's weaknesses, strengths, or significance. The emerging of so many English versions of Nei Jing, an ancient and sophisticated text, shows that scholars have disparate understanding of its language and concepts. Additionally, different educational backgrounds, professions and goals of the translators will all contribute to different perspectives and approaches in the translation. It is understandable that so many versions of translation exist for such an ancient and important classic. However, to achieve truly accurate translation of ancient classical texts of Chinese medicine, all translators should abide by certain basic requirements and translation principles.

Harnessing Biomedical Natural Language Processing Tools to Identify Medicinal Plant Knowledge from Historical Texts.

The growing amount of data describing historical medicinal uses of plants from digitization efforts provides the opportunity to develop systematic approaches for identifying potential plant-based therapies. However, the task of cataloguing plant use information from natural language text is a challenging task for ethnobotanists. To date, there have been only limited adoption of informatics approaches used for supporting the identification of ethnobotanical information associated with medicinal uses. This study explored the feasibility of using biomedical terminologies and natural language processing approaches for extracting relevant plant-associated therapeutic use information from historical biodiversity literature collection available from the Biodiversity Heritage Library. The results from this preliminary study suggest that there is potential utility of informatics methods to identify medicinal plant knowledge from digitized resources as well as highlight opportunities for improvement.

Blurring reality with fiction: Exploring the stories of women, madness, and infanticide.

PROBLEM: Often, there is a sense of shock and disbelief when a mother murders her child. BACKGROUND: Yet, literary texts (plays, poems and novels) contain depictions of women experiencing mental illness or feelings of desperation after childbirth who murder their children. AIM: To further understand why a woman may harm her child we examine seven literary texts ranging in time and place from fifth century BCE Greece to twenty-first century Australia. METHODS: A textual analysis approach examined how the author positioned the woman in the text, how other characters in the text reacted to the woman before, during, and after the mental illness or infanticide, and how the literary or historical critical literature sees the woman. FINDINGS: Three important points about the woman's experience were revealed: she is represented as morally ambiguous and becomes marginalised and isolated; she is depicted as murdering or abandoning her child because she is experiencing mental illness and/or she is living in desperate circumstances; and she believes there is no other option. CONCLUSION: Literary texts can shed light on socio-psychological struggles women experience and can be used to stimulate discussion by healthcare professionals about the development of preventative or early intervention strategies to identify women at risk.

[WANG Zhizhong and his Experience on Acupuncture and Moxibustion Therapy].

WANG Zhizhong, born in the Southern Song Dynasty, was proficient in TCM theory and enjoyed summarizing proved prescriptions. During his spare time, he wrote Experience on Acupuncture and Moxibustion Therapy with scientific writing structure, wide quote of references and attached medical reports, which modified and enriched the content of acupoint therapy. This book played an important role as a link between past and future; it included a considerable number of moxibustion methods and was considered as the greatest medical achievement before Song Dynasty. In addition, this book contained the greatest number of proved prescriptions among the ancient acupuncture books, so its academic value was self-evident. However, when examining and correcting the acupoints, WANG ignored the fact that acupuncture physicians had different clinical experience and their understanding on the body structure was discrepant, so the contradictions of location and indications of acupoints appeared in the book.

Reading and Hearing The Womans Booke in Early Modern England.

This essay takes seriously Thomas Raynalde's advice in The Womans Booke that women might read this work aloud. The evidence I use to sketch the scene of reading includes Raynalde's advice to readers in his long prologue, and also the kind of reading practice that his own writing represents. But I also go outside the text, considering what we know about the experience of listening to a book, and emphasizing the link between this practice and rhetorical education. I also examine the evidence left behind by two male readers: William Ward, who marked his copy of the 1565 edition privately, and Edward Poeton of Petworth, who represented instead a semipublic or shared reading: the evaluation of The Womans Booke and other books of generation by a Midwife and her Deputy in a fictional dialogue "The Midwives Deputie" (ca. 1630s).

Spinal Traumas and their Treatments According to Avicenna's Canon of Medicine.

Spinal Traumas have been categorized as disabling diseases that cause irretrievable personal and social problems. Having conducted a rather comprehensive diagnosis of the anatomy of the backbone and spinal cord as well as their functions, Avicenna (Ibn Sina, 980-1037) stated the levels and kinds of spinal impairments that are caused by spinal traumas in his great masterpiece Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb (The Canon of Medicine). He also based his treatment process on his etiological diagnosis of such impairments. Avicenna had used the following methods to treat spinal traumas: food and drug therapy and regimental therapies such as massage, phlebotomy, cupping, dry sauna, and surgery. The authors of the present article review the bases of Avicenna's viewpoints regarding spinal traumas and their treatment.

Acupuncture points in the book of Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu, a 15th century Turkish physician.

Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu (1385-1468?), the author of Cerrahiyetü'l-Haniyye (Imperial Surgery), was a distinguished Ottoman Turkish surgeon. The first illustrated Turkish surgical textbook, Cerrahiyetü'l-Haniyye consisted of three chapters (ie, cauterisation treatments, surgical procedures and fractures and dislocations). Although the main source of the book was Al-Tasrif (Textbook of Surgery) by Albucasis (Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi; 936-1013 AD), Sabuncuoglu added much new information, his clinical experiences and suggestions. The original illustrations and human figures made Cerrahiyetü'l-Haniyye the first illustrated medical textbook in Turkish and Islamic medicine literature. Cerrahiyetü'l-Haniyye was also a valuable source for acupuncturists. Some new sections and additions revealed that Sabuncuoglu had knowledge of Chinese medicine. In four sections of Cerrahiyetü'l-Haniyye (ie, toothache, haemorrhoids, eczema and dermatophytosis) Sabuncuoglu described acupuncture techniques and point locations. It is likely that the Chinese medicine content of Cerrahiyetü'l-Haniyye was derived from Central Asian roots of Anatolian Turkish people.

[The 1562 De dentibus by Girolamo Cardano]. / IL "De Dentibus" (1562) Di Girolamo Cardano.

"In the year 1562, having noticed that none of the ancient or modern physicians had treated the subject of dental care, I wrote this first book on the teeth". So begins the preface to the five books of the Opuscula medica senilia by Girolamo Cardano, the first organic text on dentistry in history. It competed with the famous Libellus de dentibus by Bartolomeo Eustachio that appeared in 1563 (but was written in 1562). However, our intention is not to establish precedence but bring to reader's attention Cardano's work that complemented Eustachio's anatomy and physiology of the teeth with their pathology and therapy. This article summarises Cardano's biography and gives a brief review of literature on the De dentibus and of his first complete translation from Latin into Italian. De dentibus is the first of the five books of the Opuscula and is divided into three chapters, as described below. Chapter one, De dentibus, recalls briefly the anatomy and embryology of human teeth as bones and compares them with the teeth of some animals. Follows a description of systemic and local procedures, to preserve, protect, and cure the teeth. Preservation and protection are related to diet, sleep, physical activity, systemic and local medicaments, and amulets., whereas therapy involves remedies taken over from the Ancient Greek and Roman medicine (Hippocrates, Archigenes, Galen, Scribonius, Pliny the Younger, Ezio, Marcellus Empiricus ) and Arabic medicine (Avicenna in particular). The chapter continues with guidelines and procedures for shedding teeth that are damaged beyond repair using a special saltpetre and alum distillate of Cardano's own invention, which he finds very effective. The chapter concludes with tooth extraction tools and methods, especially the one by Scribonius Largo with red-hot iron. Chapter two, -De morbis dentium in specie, describes diseases that affect the teeth and that can cause ache, mobility, weakness, numbness, or deformity (dolor, commotio, imbecillitas, stupor, deformitas). All these conditions may interact, creating a wide range of situations. Ache has seven possible causes that include altered humour, a cavity, a nerve injury, an abscess, breath (flatus), worms, and cold, and Cardano describes the remedies at physician's disposal that even include spells. The causes of mobility are the same as for the ache plus periodontal problems such as dry root or alveolar laxity, and the author discusses local and systemic treatment options. Weakness is considered the worst of the dental pathologies, as it can easily require extraction. Stupor is caused by the corruption of the tooth or a nerve injury, and Cardano refers to it as a life-threatening condition (quoad vitam) in older people if untreated, but also easy to remedy if detected early. Cardano then identifies a whole series of deformities: tooth colour, roughness, fracture, position, number, absence, length, calculus, bad smell, and porosity, and for each of them he offers a wide variety of remedies, in part original and in part borrowed from the ancients. In the last part, Cardano stresses the need to extract as few teeth as possible: "I've never seen anyone die from the diseases of the teeth, except for a tooth extracted inappropriately" To emphasize the dichotomy between medicine and surgery, he explains that tooth care is medical, but extraction requires an experienced surgeon. Chapter three, De fluxione, frequentissima causa morborum dentium, identifies gumboil as a frequent cause of dental disease, and describes the pathogenesis and therapy of gumboil-related diseases, gout in particular.

Medieval European medicine and Asian spices.

This article aimed to explain the reasons why Asian spices including pepper, ginger, and cinnamon were considered as special and valuable drugs with curative powers in the Medieval Europe. Among these spices, pepper was most widely and frequently used as medicine according to medieval medical textbooks. We analyzed three main pharmacology books written during the Middle Ages. One of the main reasons that oriental spices were widely used as medicine was due to the particular medieval medical system fundamentally based on the humoral theory invented by Hippocrates and Galen. This theory was modified by Arab physicians and imported to Europe during the Middle Ages. According to this theory, health is determined by the balance of the following four humors which compose the human body: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Each humor has its own qualities such as cold, hot, wet, and dry. Humoral imbalance was one of the main causes of disease, so it was important to have humoral equilibrium. Asian spices with hot and dry qualities were used to balance the cold and wet European diet. The analysis of several major medical textbooks of the Middle Ages proves that most of the oriental spices with hot and dry qualities were employed to cure diverse diseases, particularly those caused by coldness and humidity. However, it should be noted that the oriental spices were considered to be much more valuable and effective as medicines than the local medicinal ingredients, which were not only easily procured but also were relatively cheap. Europeans mystified oriental spices, with the belief that they have marvelous and mysterious healing powers. Such mystification was related to the terrestrial Paradise. They believed that the oriental spices were grown in Paradise which was located in the Far East and were brought to the Earthly world along the four rivers flowing from the Paradise.

[Do women cry more than men, and why?]. / Les femmes pleurent-elles plus que les hommes, et pourquoi?

Where do tears come from? Do women weep more than men, and why? Ijsbrand van Diemerbroeck (1609-1674), a physician at Utrecht in the 17th century, tries to find an answer to these questions in a dissertation of about fifteen pages in his book Anatome corporis humani. Acccording to tradition, he thinks that tears are produced by the brain, he gives a mechanical explanation of their origin, but he persists in thinking that their main function is the purgation of the brain. On the other hand, this exocrin secretion causes moralizing or aesthetic interpretations in the literature and arts contemporaneous with van Diemerbroeck's work.

Vesalius on the anatomy and function of the recurrent laryngeal nerves: medical illustration and reintroduction of a physiological demonstration from Galen.

The purpose of this article is to review the anatomical illustrations and physiological demonstrations of sixteenth-century Flemish-born anatomist and physician Andreas Vesalius concerning the recurrent laryngeal nerves. Although Vesalius was primarily an anatomist, he also used vivisection as a pedagogical device to help his students understand the function of structures within the fabric of the body that they had previously studied in anatomical detail. Vesalius's masterwork, De humani corporis fabrica or simply the Fabrica (1543, 1555), was ostensibly an anatomy text, but Vesalius included textual and figural references to his use of vivisection to explicate the function of specific structures. Even as he began to criticize the errors in Galen's anatomical works, Vesalius nevertheless adopted some of Galen's classic physiological demonstrations, in particular the ligation (and subsequent release) of the recurrent laryngeal nerves of a pig to demonstrate their role in generating the pig's squeal. Vesalius's illustrations concerning the recurrent laryngeal nerve in the Fabrica were of two types: elegant anatomical woodcut plates-unsurpassed for their clarity, accuracy, and detail - and the distinctly inelegant historiated initial Q, depicting a throng of putti busily engaged in vivisecting a pig. Vesalius' anatomical plates were heavily plagiarized while the historiated initials, showing the rough work of an anatomist or surgeon, were largely ignored and remain little recognized today. While Vesalius' anatomical illustrations of the recurrent laryngeal nerves contained some errors, they were a dramatic departure from prior meager efforts at medical illustration and indeed far surpassed all contemporary published illustrations by others. Vesalius was also influential in reviving Galen's approach to vivisection, at least for pedagogical purposes, if not really then yet as a full-fledged investigative technique.

How did Haly Abbas look at the cardiovascular system?

Persian scholars, especially those who lived during the Golden Age of Islamic Medicine (9th-12th century AD), made significant contributions to the healing arts and secured a place of honor for themselves in the history of this science. Abu l-Hasan Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi Ahvazi (? 930-994AD), with the Latinized name of Haly Abbas, was a scientist from this part of the world who contributed to the advancement of medicine. He is the author of Kamil al-Sina'ah al-Tibbiyah (The Perfect Book of the Art of Medicine), also commonly known as al-Kitab al-Maliki (The Royal Book), a medical encyclopedia renowned for its systematic and precise content. This textbook covers a wide variety of medical issues, among them topics related to the science of cardiology. This paper reviews the main points of Haly Abbas' knowledge of the cardiovascular system, of which little has been written until now.

Sushruta: father of plastic surgery.

Sushruta is considered the "Father of Plastic Surgery." He lived in India sometime between 1000 and 800 BC, and is responsible for the advancement of medicine in ancient India. His teaching of anatomy, pathophysiology, and therapeutic strategies were of unparalleled luminosity, especially considering his time in the historical record. He is notably famous for nasal reconstruction, which can be traced throughout the literature from his depiction within the Vedic period of Hindu medicine to the era of Tagliacozzi during Renaissance Italy to modern-day surgical practices. The primary focus of this historical review is centered on Sushruta's anatomical and surgical knowledge and his creation of the cheek flap for nasal reconstruction and its transition to the "Indian method." The influential nature of the Sushruta Samhita, the compendium documenting Sushruta's theories about medicine, is supported not only by anatomical knowledge and surgical procedural descriptions contained within its pages, but by the creative approaches that still hold true today.

Medieval European Medicine and Asian Spices / 의사학

This article aimed to explain the reasons why Asian spices including pepper, ginger, and cinnamon were considered as special and valuable drugs with curative powers in the Medieval Europe. Among these spices, pepper was most widely and frequently used as medicine according to medieval medical textbooks. We analyzed three main pharmacology books written during the Middle Ages. One of the main reasons that oriental spices were widely used as medicine was due to the particular medieval medical system fundamentally based on the humoral theory invented by Hippocrates and Galen. This theory was modified by Arab physicians and imported to Europe during the Middle Ages. According to this theory, health is determined by the balance of the following four humors which compose the human body: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Each humor has its own qualities such as cold, hot, wet, and dry. Humoral imbalance was one of the main causes of disease, so it was important to have humoral equilibrium. Asian spices with hot and dry qualities were used to balance the cold and wet European diet. The analysis of several major medical textbooks of the Middle Ages proves that most of the oriental spices with hot and dry qualities were employed to cure diverse diseases, particularly those caused by coldness and humidity. However, it should be noted that the oriental spices were considered to be much more valuable and effective as medicines than the local medicinal ingredients, which were not only easily procured but also were relatively cheap. Europeans mystified oriental spices, with the belief that they have marvelous and mysterious healing powers. Such mystification was related to the terrestrial Paradise. They believed that the oriental spices were grown in Paradise which was located in the Far East and were brought to the Earthly world along the four rivers flowing from the Paradise.