Psychophysiological and emotional effects of human-Dog interactions by activity type: An electroencephalogram study.

Animal-assisted interventions are being increasingly used in studies that support various health effects. This study compared the psychophysiological and emotional responses during diverse activities with a dog to understand the impact of activity type. This study included 30 healthy adults (average age: 27.9 ± 8.4 years). Participants performed eight different activities with a dog for 3 minutes each. These activities included meeting, playing, feeding, massaging, grooming, photographing, hugging, and walking. Brain waves in the prefrontal, frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes were measured during the activities. Subjective evaluation of their emotions was recorded after each activity via the Profile of Mood States, Semantic Differential Method, and Stress Numeric Rating Scale. The alpha (relative, relative slow, relative fast) power spectra indicated that the brain's relaxation and resting state significantly increased when playing with and walking a dog. The beta (relative, relative low, and relative mid) power spectra significantly increased during dog massage, grooming, and playing activities, indicating improved concentration without stress. Notably, playing with a dog positively affected both relaxation and concentration. The Profile of Mood States outcome showed that activities such as feeding, massaging, and hugging the dog decreased the total mood disorder score, which indicated a positive effect on participants' moods. The Semantic Differential Method revealed that participants felt comfortable and natural while walking with a dog and relaxed when massaging it. Participants showed significantly lower stress moods in all the activities. This study demonstrated that specific dog activities could activate stronger relaxation, emotional stability, attention, concentration, and creativity by facilitating increased brain activity. In addition, interactions with dogs could decrease stress and induce positive emotional responses. These results provide data that forms the basis for the composition of the AAI program and may be applicable as a reference to determine the most effective activities for specific applications.

A Systematic Review on the Adult Alpha Brainwave Activity After Essential Oil Inhalation.

Aroma extracts from plant species have been utilized since ancient times for a variety of discomforting circumstances. Aromatherapy is a recognized complementary therapeutic treatment performed in various ways such as massage or dermal application, with its main uses involving relaxation, pain relief, and stress management. Several studies have outlined that inhalation of fragrance may influence the brain function since their components can cross the blood-brain barrier and interact with central nervous system receptors. The aim of this review was to systematically present findings regarding alpha brain wave activity reported exclusively by electroencephalography. The study was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. The PubMed and Scopus databases were screened for relevant papers, based on specific eligibility criteria. The final step of the process resulted in 13 studies published between 1998 and 2021, using different essential oils. Most of the studies revealed the increase of alpha brainwave activity post-essential oil inhalation. Given the proven positive outcomes of increased alpha wave activity on several domains such as cognitive performance and better mental state, further research on the impact of essential oil inhalation is warranted.

Virtual reality and motor imagery for early post-stroke rehabilitation.

BACKGROUND: Motor impairment is a common consequence of stroke causing difficulty in independent movement. The first month of post-stroke rehabilitation is the most effective period for recovery. Movement imagination, known as motor imagery, in combination with virtual reality may provide a way for stroke patients with severe motor disabilities to begin rehabilitation. METHODS: The aim of this study is to verify whether motor imagery and virtual reality help to activate stroke patients' motor cortex. 16 acute/subacute (< 6 months) stroke patients participated in this study. All participants performed motor imagery of basketball shooting which involved the following tasks: listening to audio instruction only, watching a basketball shooting animation in 3D with audio, and also performing motor imagery afterwards. Electroencephalogram (EEG) was recorded for analysis of motor-related features of the brain such as power spectral analysis in the [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] frequency bands and spectral entropy. 18 EEG channels over the motor cortex were used for all stroke patients. RESULTS: All results are normalised relative to all tasks for each participant. The power spectral densities peak near the [Formula: see text] band for all participants and also the [Formula: see text] band for some participants. Tasks with instructions during motor imagery generally show greater power spectral peaks. The p-values of the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for band power comparison from the 18 EEG channels between different pairs of tasks show a 0.01 significance of rejecting the band powers being the same for most tasks done by stroke subjects. The motor cortex of most stroke patients is more active when virtual reality is involved during motor imagery as indicated by their respective scalp maps of band power and spectral entropy. CONCLUSION: The resulting activation of stroke patient's motor cortices in this study reveals evidence that it is induced by imagination of movement and virtual reality supports motor imagery. The framework of the current study also provides an efficient way to investigate motor imagery and virtual reality during post-stroke rehabilitation.

Investigating the Impact of Guided Imagery on Stress, Brain Functions, and Attention: A Randomized Trial.

The aim of this study was to investigate the potential impact of guided imagery (GI) on attentional control and cognitive performance and to explore the relationship between guided imagery, stress reduction, alpha brainwave activity, and attentional control using common cognitive performance tests. Executive function was assessed through the use of attentional control tests, including the anti-saccade, Stroop, and Go/No-go tasks. Participants underwent a guided imagery session while their brainwave activity was measured, followed by attentional control tests. The study's outcomes provide fresh insights into the influence of guided imagery on brain wave activity, particularly in terms of attentional control. The findings suggest that guided imagery has the potential to enhance attentional control by augmenting the alpha power and reducing stress levels. Given the limited existing research on the specific impact of guided imagery on attention control, the study's findings carry notable significance.

Effects of inaudible binaural beats on visuospatial memory.

OBJECTIVES: Binaural beats are auditory beat stimulation that produces sounds and induces a specific state of brain wave based on the difference in the frequency of stimulation. This study aimed to investigate the effects of inaudible binaural beats on visuospatial memory at 18 000 Hz reference and 10 Hz difference frequencies. METHODS: Eighteen adult subjects in their twenties were enrolled, including 12 males (mean age: 23.8 ±â€…1.2) and 6 females (mean age: 22.8 ±â€…0.8). An auditory stimulator providing 10 Hz binaural beats stimulation via 18 000 Hz to the left and 18 010 Hz to the right ears was used. The experiment consisted of two 5-min phases, including a rest phase and a task phase involving task performance without (Task-only) and with binaural beats stimulation (Task+BB). A 3-back task was used to measure visuospatial memory. Cognitive ability measured by task performance (accuracy and reaction time) with and without binaural beats, as well as variations in alpha power across different brain domains, were compared using paired t-tests. RESULTS: Compared to the Task-only condition, the Task+BB condition had significantly higher accuracy and significantly shorter reaction time. The electroencephalogram analysis showed that the reduction level in alpha power for the task performance under the Task+BB condition was significantly lower in all brain areas except the frontal, compared to that under the Task-only condition. CONCLUSION: The significance of this study lies in having verified the independent effects of binaural beats stimulation without any auditory influence, based on visuospatial memory.

Does the Sound of a Singing Bowl Synchronize Meditational Brainwaves in the Listeners?

This study aims to verify if the beating sound of a singing bowl synchronizes and activates brain waves during listening. The singing bowl used in this experiment produce beats at a frequency of 6.68 Hz, while it decays exponentially and lasts for about 50 s. Brain waves were measured for 5 min in the F3 and F4 regions of seventeen participants (eight males and nine females, average age 25.2) who heard the beating singing bowl sounds. The experimental results showed that the increases (up to ~251%) in the spectral magnitudes of the brain waves were dominant at the beat frequency compared to those of any other clinical brain wave frequency bands. The observed synchronized activation of the brain waves at the beating sound frequency supports that the singing bowl sound may effectively facilitate meditation and relaxation, considering that the beat frequency belongs to the theta wave region which increases in the relaxed meditation state.

Binaural beats to entrain the brain? A systematic review of the effects of binaural beat stimulation on brain oscillatory activity, and the implications for psychological research and intervention.

Binaural beats are an auditory phenomenon that occurs when two tones of different frequencies, which are presented separately to each ear, elicit the sensation of a third tone oscillating at the difference frequency of the two tones. Binaural beats can be perceived in the frequency range of about 1-30 Hz, a range that coincides with the main human EEG frequency bands. The brainwave entrainment hypothesis, which assumes that external stimulation at a certain frequency leads to the brain's electrocortical activity oscillating at the same frequency, provides the basis for research on the effects of binaural beat stimulation on cognitive and affective states. Studies, particularly in more applied fields, usually refer to neuroscientific research demonstrating that binaural beats elicit systematic changes in EEG parameters. At first glance, however, the available literature on brainwave entrainment effects due to binaural beat stimulation appears to be inconclusive at best. The aim of the present systematic review is, thus, to synthesize existing empirical research. A sample of fourteen published studies met our criteria for inclusion. The results corroborate the impression of an overall inconsistency of empirical outcomes, with five studies reporting results in line with the brainwave entrainment hypothesis, eight studies reporting contradictory, and one mixed results. What is to be noticed is that the fourteen studies included in this review were very heterogeneous regarding the implementation of the binaural beats, the experimental designs, and the EEG parameters and analyses. The methodological heterogeneity in this field of study ultimately limits the comparability of research outcomes. The results of the present systematic review emphasize the need for standardization in study approaches so as to allow for reliable insight into brainwave entrainment effects in the future.

An Attempt to Develop a Model of Brain Waves Using Quantitative Electroencephalography with Closed Eyes in K1 Kickboxing Athletes-Initial Concept.

BACKGROUND: Brain injuries are a common problem in combat sports, especially in disciplines such as kickboxing. Kickboxing is a combat sport that has several variations of competition, with the most contact-oriented fights being carried out under the format of K-1 rules. While these sports require a high level of skill and physical endurance, frequent micro-traumas to the brain can have serious consequences for the health and well-being of athletes. According to studies, combat sports are one of the riskiest sports in terms of brain injuries. Among the sports disciplines with the highest number of brain injuries, boxing, mixed martial arts (MMA), and kickboxing are mentioned. METHODS: The study was conducted on a group of 18 K-1 kickboxing athletes who demonstrate a high level of sports performance. The subjects were between the ages 18 and 28. QEEG (quantitative electroencephalogram) is a numeric spectral analysis of the EEG record, where the data is digitally coded and statistically analysed using the Fourier transform algorithm. Each examination of one person lasts about 10 min with closed eyes. The wave amplitude and power for specific frequencies (Delta, Theta, Alpha, Sensorimotor Rhythm (SMR), Beta 1, and Beta2) were analysed using 9 leads. RESULTS: High values were shown in the Alpha frequency for central leads, SMR in the Frontal 4 (F4 lead), Beta 1 in leads F4 and Parietal 3 (P3), and Beta2 in all leads. CONCLUSIONS: The high activity of brainwaves such as SMR, Beta and Alpha can have a negative effect on the athletic performance of kickboxing athletes by affecting focus, stress, anxiety, and concentration. Therefore, it is important for athletes to monitor their brainwave activity and use appropriate training strategies to achieve optimal results.

EEG-Based BCIs on Motor Imagery Paradigm Using Wearable Technologies: A Systematic Review.

In recent decades, the automatic recognition and interpretation of brain waves acquired by electroencephalographic (EEG) technologies have undergone remarkable growth, leading to a consequent rapid development of brain-computer interfaces (BCIs). EEG-based BCIs are non-invasive systems that allow communication between a human being and an external device interpreting brain activity directly. Thanks to the advances in neurotechnologies, and especially in the field of wearable devices, BCIs are now also employed outside medical and clinical applications. Within this context, this paper proposes a systematic review of EEG-based BCIs, focusing on one of the most promising paradigms based on motor imagery (MI) and limiting the analysis to applications that adopt wearable devices. This review aims to evaluate the maturity levels of these systems, both from the technological and computational points of view. The selection of papers has been performed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA), leading to 84 publications considered in the last ten years (from 2012 to 2022). Besides technological and computational aspects, this review also aims to systematically list experimental paradigms and available datasets in order to identify benchmarks and guidelines for the development of new applications and computational models.

Effect of vitamin D supplementation on brain waves, behavioral performance, nitric oxide, malondialdehyde, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: study protocol for a randomized clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common chronic mental and behavioral disorder among children. Some studies showed the lower levels of vitamin D in patients with ADHD compared with the healthy people. Few clinical trials were conducted in this field. The present study will be performed to examine the effect of vitamin D supplementation in children with ADHD. METHODS: We will conduct a double-blind, randomized controlled clinical trial to investigate the effect of vitamin D supplementation on brain waves, behavioral performance, serum nitric oxide, malondialdehyde, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein in 50 patients with ADHD. The intervention group will receive one capsule 50,000 IU vitamin D every week, for 8 weeks. The control group will receive one placebo capsule containing 1000 mg olive oil every week. Electroencephalography will be performed for 10 min using Brain Master Discovery from 19 scalp sites both before the first intervention and the 10 sessions of the therapy. The artifact-free periods of 1-min electroencephalography data will be analyzed for quantitative electroencephalography measures. DISCUSSION: For the first time, this clinical trial will evaluate the effect of vitamin D supplementation on brain waves, serum nitric oxide, malondialdehyde, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein in patients with ADHD. The results of the present clinical trial will provide a better vision about the vitamin D efficacy in patients with ADHD. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Registered on 5 November 2020 at Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials with code number IRCT20200922048802N1 ( https://www.irct.ir/trial/51410 ).

Development of a brain wave model based on the quantitative analysis of EEG and EEG biofeedback therapy in patients with panic attacks during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The current global crisis facing the world is the COVID-19 pandemic. Infection from the SARS-CoV-2 virus leads to serious health complications and even death. As it turns out, COVID-19 not only physically assails the health of those infected, but also leads to serious mental illness regardless of the presence of the disease. Social isolation, fear, concern for oneself and one's loved ones, all of this occurs when a pandemic overloads people. People exhibit numerous neurological disorders that have never happened to them before. Patients are diagnosed with frequent panic attacks, the result of which can be seen in their Quantitative Electroencephalogram results. This test may be one of the main diagnostic tools of the COVID-19 pandemic. From the results obtained, it is possible to compare and draw conclusions. This method of testing effectively allows EEG biofeedback training and observes its effect on brain activity. The feedback received in this way gives us the opportunity to properly tailor a protocol for the patient and their conditions. Numerous studies support the effectiveness of EEG biofeedback for panic attacks and other psychiatric disorders. The purpose of our study was to show the effectiveness of EEG biofeedback with a Quantitative Electroencephalogram of the brainwave pattern after having COVID-19 and what symptoms may result.

Effect of binaural beat in the inaudible band on EEG (STROBE).

This study aimed to determine the effects of the binaural beat (BB) on brainwave induction using an inaudible baseline frequency outside the audible frequency range. Experiments were conducted on 18 subjects (11 males [mean age: 25.7 ± 1.6 years] and 7 females [mean age: 24.0 ± 0.6 years]). A BB stimulation of 10 Hz was exerted by presenting frequencies of 18,000 Hz and 18,010 Hz to the left and right ears, respectively. A power spectrum analysis was performed to estimate the mean of the absolute power of the alpha frequency range (8-13 Hz). The variation in the mean alpha power during the rest and stimulation phases in each brain area was compared using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Compared to the rest phase, the stimulation phase with BB showed an increasing trend in the mean alpha power across all 5 brain areas. Notably, a significant increase was found in the frontal, central, and temporal areas. This is a significant study in that it determines the effects of only BB without the influence of auditory perception, which has been overlooked in previous studies.

Technical innovations in stroke rehabilitation - a survey for development of a non-invasive, brainwave-guided, functional muscle stimulation.

BACKGROUND: Stroke is one of the most frequent causes of death in Germany and the developed countries. After a stroke, those affected often suffer particularly from functional motor restrictions of the upper extremities. Newer techniques such as the BCI-FES systems aim to establish a communication channel between the brain and external devices with a neuromuscular intervention. The electrical activity of the brain is measured, processed, translated into control signals and can then be used to control an application. METHODS: As a mixed-methods design (exploratory design), eight guideline-based expert interviews were conducted first. For the quantitative expert survey, 95 chief physicians from the field of neuromedicine in rehabilitation facilities nationwide were subsequently invited to participate in an online survey. RESULTS: In our data analysis, we found that doctors are largely open-minded towards new technical rehabilitation systems. In addition to the proper functioning of the system, they consider the understanding of the functionality and the meaningfulness of the system to be particularly important. In addition, the system should be motivating for individuals, generate meaningful movements, be easy to use, evidence-based and quick to set up. Concerns were expressed regarding the understanding of the system's processes, especially in the acute phase after a stroke, as well as the excessive expectation of results from the system on the part of the persons. The experts named stroke patients in rehabilitation phase C, which is about mobilization and recovery, as well as all persons who can understand the language requirements as benefiting groups of people. CONCLUSION: The present study shows that more research should and must be done in the field of BCI-FES interfaces, and various development trends have been identified. The system has the potential to play a leading role in the rehabilitation of stroke patients in the future. Nevertheless, more work should be done on the improvement and implementation as well as the system's susceptibility to interference in everyday patient life.

A cup of black coffee with GI, please! Evidence of geographical indication influence on a coffee tasting experiment.

Geographical Indication (GI) certifications enable producers to set production standards and create competitive advantage based on product's origin. In a coffee tasting experiment, brain responses to origin information of 40 participants, grouped equally by gender and involvement level, were collected by electroencephalography to verify: the impact of the GI cue in four brain waves (alpha, beta, delta and theta) and two brain lobes (frontal and temporal); preference; gender and involvement moderations. Results show that women presented power differences in both hemispheres, more channels/waves, which indicates greater sensitivity to the origin cue. Men presented power differences in fewer channels/waves. It is observed that involvement has a tenuous moderation effect when compared to gender. As for preference, the analysis of delta and theta waves indicated that men preferred coffee with GI; while women preferred coffee without GI, even though most of them indicated the opposite when verbally asked at the end of the tasting section.

Spatiotemporal structure of sensory-evoked and spontaneous activity revealed by mesoscale imaging in anesthetized and awake mice.

Stimuli-evoked and spontaneous brain activity propagates across the cortex in diverse spatiotemporal patterns. Despite extensive studies, the relationship between spontaneous and evoked activity is poorly understood. We investigate this relationship by comparing the amplitude, speed, direction, and complexity of propagation trajectories of spontaneous and evoked activity elicited with visual, auditory, and tactile stimuli using mesoscale wide-field imaging in mice. For both spontaneous and evoked activity, the speed and direction of propagation is modulated by the amplitude. However, spontaneous activity has a higher complexity of the propagation trajectories. For low stimulus strengths, evoked activity amplitude and speed is similar to that of spontaneous activity but becomes dissimilar at higher stimulus strengths. These findings are consistent with observations that primary sensory areas receive widespread inputs from other cortical regions, and during rest, the cortex tends to reactivate traces of complex multisensory experiences that might have occurred in exhibition of different behaviors.

Amplitude modulated transcranial alternating current stimulation (AM-TACS) efficacy evaluation via phosphene induction.

Amplitude modulated transcranial alternating current stimulation (AM-tACS) is a novel method of electrostimulation which enables the recording of electrophysiological signals during stimulation, thanks to an easier removable stimulation artefact compared to classical electrostimulation methods. To gauge the neuromodulatory potential of AM-tACS, we tested its capacity to induce phosphenes as an indicator of stimulation efficacy. AM-tACS was applied via a two-electrode setup, attached on FpZ and below the right eye. AM-tACS waveforms comprised of different carrier (50 Hz, 200 Hz, 1000 Hz) and modulation frequencies (8 Hz, 16 Hz, 28 Hz) were administered with at maximum 2 mA peak-to-peak stimulation strength. TACS conditions in the same frequencies were used as a benchmark for phosphene induction. AM-tACS conditions using a 50 Hz carrier frequency were able to induce phosphenes, but with no difference in phosphene thresholds between modulation frequencies. AM-tACS using a 200 Hz or 1000 Hz carrier frequency did not induce phosphenes. TACS conditions induced phosphenes in line with previous studies. Stimulation effects of AM-tACS conditions were independent of amplitude modulation and instead relied solely on the carrier frequency. A possible explanation may be that AM-tACS needs higher stimulation intensities for its amplitude modulation to have a neuromodulatory effect.

Effect of Slow and Deep Breathing on Brain Waves in Regular Yoga Practitioners.

Various yogic practices focus on breathing. Breathing may affect brain waves. This cross-sectional study was conducted to see the effect slow and deep respiration on EEG activity in experienced Yoga practitioners at the Department of Physiology at AIIMS, Bhopal, India. The duration of the study was about one year. EEG was taken and was analyzed by Dinamika - Advanced Test System, Moscow, Russia. Paired t-test using graph pad software was used for statistical analysis. The Delta percentage decreased and the other wave's percentages theta, alpha, and beta increased significantly. The person becomes deeply relaxed and more focussed on slow and deep breathing.

Neurofeedback therapy for the management of multiple sclerosis symptoms: current knowledge and future perspectives.

Fatigue is a frequent and debilitating symptom in patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). Affective manifestations are also of high prevalence in this population and can drastically impact the patients' functioning. A considerable proportion of patients with MS suffer from cognitive deficits affecting general and social cognitive domains. In addition, pain in MS is commonly observed in neurology wards, could be of different types, and may result from or be exacerbated by other MS comorbidities. These complaints tend to cluster together in some patients and seem to have a complex pathophysiology and a challenging management. Exploring the effects of new interventions could improve these outcomes and ameliorate the patients' quality of life. Neurofeedback (NFB) might have its place in this context by enhancing or reducing the activity of some regions in specific electroencephalographic bands (i.e., theta, alpha, beta, sensorimotor rhythm). This work briefly revisits the principles of NFB and its application. The published data are scarce and heterogeneous yet suggest preliminary evidence on the potential utility of NFB in patients with MS (i.e., depression, fatigue, cognitive deficits and pain). NFB is simple to adapt and easy to coach, and its place in the management of MS symptoms merits further investigations. Comparing different NFB protocols (i.e., cortical target, specific rhythm, session duration and number) and performing a comprehensive evaluation could help developing and optimizing interventions targeting specific symptoms. These aspects could also open the way for the association of this technique with other approaches (i.e., brain stimulation, cognitive rehabilitation, exercise training, psychotherapies) that have proved their worth in some MS domains.

Arousal-Inducing Effect of Garcinia cambogia Peel Extract in Pentobarbital-Induced Sleep Test and Electroencephalographic Analysis.

Caffeine, a natural stimulant, is known to be effective for weight loss. On this basis, we screened the arousal-inducing effect of five dietary supplements with a weight loss effect (Garcinia cambogia, Coleus forskohlii, Camellia sinensis L., Irvingia gabonensis, and Malus pumila M.), of which the G. cambogia peel extract (GC) showed a significant arousal-inducing effect in the pentobarbital-induced sleep test in mice. This characteristic of GC was further evaluated by analysis of electroencephalogram and electromyogram in C57L/6N mice, and it was compared to that of the positive control, caffeine. Administration of GC (1500 mg/kg) significantly increased wakefulness and decreased non-rapid eye movement sleep, similar to that of caffeine (25 mg/kg), with GC and caffeine showing a significant increase in wakefulness at 2 and 6 h, respectively. Compared to that of caffeine, the shorter duration of efficacy of GC could be advantageous because of the lower possibility of sleep disturbance. Furthermore, the arousal-inducing effects of GC (1500 mg/kg) and caffeine (25 mg/kg) persisted throughout the chronic (3 weeks) administration study. This study, for the first time, revealed the arousal-inducing effect of GC. Our findings suggest that GC might be a promising natural stimulant with no side effects. In addition, it is preferential to take GC as a dietary supplement for weight loss during the daytime to avoid sleep disturbances owing to its arousal-inducing effect.

Effects of binaural and monaural beat stimulation on attention and EEG.

Nowadays a popular technique to improve mood and cognition is auditory beat stimulation (ABS), which is thought to induce a frequency-following response of brainwaves. The main types of ABS are monaural beats (MB) and binaural beats (BB). BB involves the presentation of a specific frequency to one ear and another frequency to the other ear which may induce neural entrainment. A difference between the frequencies of 40 Hz is assumed to improve cognition. The present study examined the effect of 40 Hz binaural beats (BB) and monaural beats (MB) on attention and electroencephalography (EEG). A total of 25 first-year psychology students (11 males, 14 females) performed a Flanker task while EEG was recorded during the 5 min-presentation of pink noise (PN), MB and BB. With respect to attention, as measured by the Flanker task, the number of false responses in the BB condition was smaller than that in the PN condition while the number of false responses in the MB condition was larger as compared to the PN condition. As there was no association of BB with a consistent increase in absolute 40 or 45 Hz power compared to PN or MB, EEG recordings could not confirm the hypothesized neural entrainment in the brain. Overall, the current findings show that listening to 40 Hz BB improves attention but do not show the occurrence of neural entrainment. Future research is recommended to include a larger sample, to use a broader cognitive test battery and to present auditory beats with a longer duration.