Truncated Pneumolysin from Streptococcus pneumoniae as a TLR4-Antagonizing New Drug for Chronic Inflammatory Conditions.

Microbial proteins have recently been found to have more benefits in clinical disease treatment because of their better-developed strategy and properties than traditional medicine. In this study, we investigated the effectiveness of a truncated peptide synthesized from the C-terminal sequence of pneumolysin, i.e., C70PLY4, in Streptococcus pneumoniae, in treating chronic inflammatory conditions. It has been shown that C70PLY4 significantly blocks the transendothelial migration of neutrophils and attenuates the formation of atherosclerotic plaque and the secretion of soluble forms of the intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), the vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), and E-selectin in high-fat-diet/streptozotocin-induced inflammatory rats. The mechanism and the docking simulation analysis further indicated that C70PLY4 might serve as a Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) antagonist by competing for the binding site of MD2, an indispensable protein for lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-TLR4 interaction signaling, on the TLR4 structure. Moreover, compared to the full-length PLY, C70PLY4 seems to have no cytotoxicity in human vascular endothelial cells. Our study elucidated a possible therapeutic efficacy of C70PLY4 in reducing chronic inflammatory conditions and clarified the underlying mechanism. Thus, our findings identify a new drug candidate that, by blocking TLR4 activity, could be an effective treatment for patients with chronic inflammatory diseases.

Pharmacological Characteristics of Porcine Orexin 2 Receptor and Mutants.

Orexin receptors (OXRs) play a critical regulatory role in central control of food intake, maintenance of sleeping states, energy metabolism, and neuroendocrine homeostasis. However, most previous studies have focused on the sleep-promoting functions of OXRs in human beings, while their potential value in enhancing food intake for livestock breeding has not been fully exploited. In this study, we successfully cloned porcine orexin 2 receptor (pOX2R) complementary DNA and constructed four pOX2R mutants (P10S, P11T, V308I, and T401I) by site-directed mutagenesis, and their functional expressions were further confirmed through Western blotting analysis. Pharmacological characteristics of pOX2R and their mutants were further investigated. These results showed that the P10S, P11T, and T401I mutants had decreased cAMP signaling with orexin A, whereas only the P11T mutant decreased under the stimulation of orexin B. Besides, only P10S displayed a decreased calcium release in response to both orexin ligands. Importantly, these mutants exhibited decreased phosphorylation levels of ERK1/2, p38, and CREB to some degree compared with wild-type pOX2R. Collectively, these findings highlight the critical role of these mutations in pOX2R signaling and expand our understanding of molecular and pharmacological characterization of pOX2R.

Ebselen as template for stabilization of A4V mutant dimer for motor neuron disease therapy.

Mutations to the gene encoding superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1) were the first genetic elements discovered that cause motor neuron disease (MND). These mutations result in compromised SOD1 dimer stability, with one of the severest and most common mutations Ala4Val (A4V) displaying a propensity to monomerise and aggregate leading to neuronal death. We show that the clinically used ebselen and related analogues promote thermal stability of A4V SOD1 when binding to Cys111 only. We have developed a A4V SOD1 differential scanning fluorescence-based assay on a C6S mutation background that is effective in assessing suitability of compounds. Crystallographic data show that the selenium atom of these compounds binds covalently to A4V SOD1 at Cys111 at the dimer interface, resulting in stabilisation. This together with chemical amenability for hit expansion of ebselen and its on-target SOD1 pharmacological chaperone activity holds remarkable promise for structure-based therapeutics for MND using ebselen as a template.

Understanding ligands driven mechanism of wild and mutant aryl hydrocarbon receptor in presence of phytochemicals combating Parkinson's disease: an in silico and in vivo study.

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AhR) is a key player to regulate the expression of a group of enzymes known as cytochrome P450s (CYPs) super family (CYP1A1, CYP1B1, CYP2B6, and CYP2E1) which metabolites diverse endogenous as well as toxic compounds such as Benzo[a] Pyrene (B[a] P) and TCDD. B[a] P induces oxidative stress and causes degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain, may leads to Parkinson's disease (PD). The metabolism of B[a] P through the expression of CYPs is mainly triggered after binding of B[a] P within ligand binding domain of AhR. But, the molecular mechanism of AhR mediated xenobiotic metabolism in presence of diverse phytochemicals is yet to be studied. The solved AhR (PDB ID: 5NJ8, 23-273aa) structure lacks information for ligand binding domain therefore both wild type and mutant models were predicted and screened virtually against sixty one natural compounds. The result proposed withaferin A, withanolide A, withanolide B, withanolide D and withanone of plant Withania Somnifera as efficient ligand against both wild type and mutants (V381A and V381D) AhR models. However, in silico studies hypothesised withanolide A as a potent phytochemical to trigger the AhR mediated gene regulation activity of CYPs. The in vivo study in zebra fish model proposed about the neuro protective role of W. Somnifera leaf extract in presence of B[a]P. The present study would throw lights on the molecular mechanism of phytochemicals mediated AhR activity which may be useful in treatment of PD. [Formula: see text] Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

A small molecule chaperone rescues the stability and activity of a cancer-associated variant of NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 in vitro.

NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) is a human FAD-dependent enzyme that plays a crucial role in the antioxidant defense system. A naturally occurring single-nucleotide polymorphism (NQO1*2) in the NQO1 gene leads to an amino acid substitution (P187S), which severely compromises the activity and stability of the enzyme. The NQO1*2 genotype has been linked to a higher risk for several types of cancer and poor survival rate after anthracycline-based chemotherapy. In this study, we show that a small molecular chaperone (N-(2-bromophenyl)pyrrolidine-1-sulfonamide) repopulates the native wild-type conformation. As a consequence of the stabilizing effect, the enzymatic activity of the P187S variant protein is strongly improved in the presence of the molecular chaperone in vitro.

Root cultures of potato mutant lacking MSPI isoform, indispensable for photosynthetic light reactions, exhibit characteristics similar to intact plant roots.

Potato (Solanum tuberosum) mutant (ST) lacking one isoform of manganese-stabilizing protein (MSPI) of photosystem II exhibited besides spontaneous tuberization also growth changes with strongly impaired root system development. Previous studies revealed marked changes in carbohydrate levels and allocation within ST plant body. To verify causal relationship between changed carbohydrate balance and root growth restriction we engaged dark grown sucrose-supplied root organ-cultures of ST plants to exclude/confirm shoot effects. Unexpectedly, in ST root cultures we observed large alterations in growth and architecture as well as saccharide status similar to those found in the intact plant roots. The gene expression analysis, however, proved PsbO1 transcript (coding MSPI protein) neither in ST nor in WT root-organ cultures. Therefore, the results point to indirect effects of PsbO1 allele absence connected possibly with some epigenetic modulations.

Allele-selective lowering of mutant HTT protein by HTT-LC3 linker compounds.

Accumulation of mutant proteins is a major cause of many diseases (collectively called proteopathies), and lowering the level of these proteins can be useful for treatment of these diseases. We hypothesized that compounds that interact with both the autophagosome protein microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B light chain 3 (LC3)1 and the disease-causing protein may target the latter for autophagic clearance. Mutant huntingtin protein (mHTT) contains an expanded polyglutamine (polyQ) tract and causes Huntington's disease, an incurable neurodegenerative disorder2. Here, using small-molecule-microarray-based screening, we identified four compounds that interact with both LC3 and mHTT, but not with the wild-type HTT protein. Some of these compounds targeted mHTT to autophagosomes, reduced mHTT levels in an allele-selective manner, and rescued disease-relevant phenotypes in cells and in vivo in fly and mouse models of Huntington's disease. We further show that these compounds interact with the expanded polyQ stretch and could lower the level of mutant ataxin-3 (ATXN3), another disease-causing protein with an expanded polyQ tract3. This study presents candidate compounds for lowering mHTT and potentially other disease-causing proteins with polyQ expansions, demonstrating the concept of lowering levels of disease-causing proteins using autophagosome-tethering compounds.

Identification of thiostrepton as a pharmacological approach to rescue misfolded alpha-sarcoglycan mutant proteins from degradation.

Limb-girdle muscular dystrophy type 2D (LGMD2D) is characterized by a progressive proximal muscle weakness. LGMD2D is caused by mutations in the gene encoding α-sarcoglycan (α-SG), a dystrophin-associated glycoprotein that plays a key role in the maintenance of sarcolemma integrity in striated muscles. We report here on the development of a new in vitro high-throughput screening assay that allows the monitoring of the proper localization of the most prevalent mutant form of α-SG (R77C substitution). Using this assay, we screened a library of 2560 FDA-approved drugs and bioactive compounds and identified thiostrepton, a cyclic antibiotic, as a potential drug to repurpose for LGMD2D treatment. Characterization of the thiostrepton effect revealed a positive impact on R77C-α-SG and other missense mutant protein localization (R34H, I124T, V247M) in fibroblasts overexpressing these proteins. Finally, further investigations of the molecular mechanisms of action of the compound revealed an inhibition of the chymotrypsin-like activity of the proteasome 24 h after thiostrepton treatment and a synergistic effect with bortezomib, an FDA-approved proteasome inhibitor. This study reports on the first in vitro model for LGMD2D that is compatible with high-throughput screening and proposes a new therapeutic option for LGMD2D caused by missense mutations of α-SG.

Simulations of mutant p53 DNA binding domains reveal a novel druggable pocket.

The DNA binding domain (DBD) of the tumor suppressor p53 is the site of several oncogenic mutations. A subset of these mutations lowers the unfolding temperature of the DBD. Unfolding leads to the exposure of a hydrophobic ß-strand and nucleates aggregation which results in pathologies through loss of function and dominant negative/gain of function effects. Inspired by the hypothesis that structural changes that are associated with events initiating unfolding in DBD are likely to present opportunities for inhibition, we investigate the dynamics of the wild type (WT) and some aggregating mutants through extensive all atom explicit solvent MD simulations. Simulations reveal differential conformational sampling between the WT and the mutants of a turn region (S6-S7) that is contiguous to a known aggregation-prone region (APR). The conformational properties of the S6-S7 turn appear to be modulated by a network of interacting residues. We speculate that changes that take place in this network as a result of the mutational stress result in the events that destabilize the DBD and initiate unfolding. These perturbations also result in the emergence of a novel pocket that appears to have druggable characteristics. FDA approved drugs are computationally screened against this pocket.

Patient-specific mutations impair BESTROPHIN1's essential role in mediating Ca2+-dependent Cl- currents in human RPE.

Mutations in the human BEST1 gene lead to retinal degenerative diseases displaying progressive vision loss and even blindness. BESTROPHIN1, encoded by BEST1, is predominantly expressed in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), but its physiological role has been a mystery for the last two decades. Using a patient-specific iPSC-based disease model and interdisciplinary approaches, we comprehensively analyzed two distinct BEST1 patient mutations, and discovered mechanistic correlations between patient clinical phenotypes, electrophysiology in their RPEs, and the structure and function of BESTROPHIN1 mutant channels. Our results revealed that the disease-causing mechanism of BEST1 mutations is centered on the indispensable role of BESTROPHIN1 in mediating the long speculated Ca2+-dependent Cl- current in RPE, and demonstrate that the pathological potential of BEST1 mutations can be evaluated and predicted with our iPSC-based 'disease-in-a-dish' approach. Moreover, we demonstrated that patient RPE is rescuable with viral gene supplementation, providing a proof-of-concept for curing BEST1-associated diseases.

Inhibitor mechanisms in the S1 binding site of the dopamine transporter defined by multi-site molecular tethering of photoactive cocaine analogs.

Dopamine transporter (DAT) blockers like cocaine and many other abused and therapeutic drugs bind and stabilize an inactive form of the transporter inhibiting reuptake of extracellular dopamine (DA). The resulting increases in DA lead to the ability of these drugs to induce psychomotor alterations and addiction, but paradoxical findings in animal models indicate that not all DAT antagonists induce cocaine-like behavioral outcomes. How this occurs is not known, but one possibility is that uptake inhibitors may bind at multiple locations or in different poses to stabilize distinct conformational transporter states associated with differential neurochemical endpoints. Understanding the molecular mechanisms governing the pharmacological inhibition of DAT is therefore key for understanding the requisite interactions for behavioral modulation and addiction. Previously, we leveraged complementary computational docking, mutagenesis, peptide mapping, and substituted cysteine accessibility strategies to identify the specific adduction site and binding pose for the crosslinkable, photoactive cocaine analog, RTI 82, which contains a photoactive azide attached at the 2ß position of the tropane pharmacophore. Here, we utilize similar methodology with a different cocaine analog N-[4-(4-azido-3-I-iodophenyl)-butyl]-2-carbomethoxy-3-(4-chlorophenyl)tropane, MFZ 2-24, where the photoactive azide is attached to the tropane nitrogen. In contrast to RTI 82, which crosslinked into residue Phe319 of transmembrane domain (TM) 6, our findings show that MFZ 2-24 adducts to Leu80 in TM1 with modeling and biochemical data indicating that MFZ 2-24, like RTI 82, occupies the central S1 binding pocket with the (+)-charged tropane ring nitrogen coordinating with the (-)-charged carboxyl side chain of Asp79. The superimposition of the tropane ring in the three-dimensional binding poses of these two distinct ligands provides strong experimental evidence for cocaine binding to DAT in the S1 site and the importance of the tropane moiety in competitive mechanisms of DA uptake inhibition. These findings set a structure-function baseline for comparison of typical and atypical DAT inhibitors and how their interactions with DAT could lead to the loss of cocaine-like behaviors.

Lysine Decarboxylase with an Enhanced Affinity for Pyridoxal 5-Phosphate by Disulfide Bond-Mediated Spatial Reconstitution.

Lysine decarboxylase (LDC) catalyzes the decarboxylation of l-lysine to produce cadaverine, an important industrial platform chemical for bio-based polyamides. However, due to high flexibility at the pyridoxal 5-phosphate (PLP) binding site, use of the enzyme for cadaverine production requires continuous supplement of large amounts of PLP. In order to develop an LDC enzyme from Selenomonas ruminantium (SrLDC) with an enhanced affinity for PLP, we introduced an internal disulfide bond between Ala225 and Thr302 residues with a desire to retain the PLP binding site in a closed conformation. The SrLDCA225C/T302C mutant showed a yellow color and the characteristic UV/Vis absorption peaks for enzymes with bound PLP, and exhibited three-fold enhanced PLP affinity compared with the wild-type SrLDC. The mutant also exhibited a dramatically enhanced LDC activity and cadaverine conversion particularly under no or low PLP concentrations. Moreover, introduction of the disulfide bond rendered SrLDC more resistant to high pH and temperature. The formation of the introduced disulfide bond and the maintenance of the PLP binding site in the closed conformation were confirmed by determination of the crystal structure of the mutant. This study shows that disulfide bond-mediated spatial reconstitution can be a platform technology for development of enzymes with enhanced PLP affinity.

New links between SOD1 and metabolic dysfunction from a yeast model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

A number of genes have been linked to familial forms of the fatal motor neuron disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Over 150 mutations within the gene encoding superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) have been implicated in ALS, but why such mutations lead to ALS-associated cellular dysfunction is unclear. In this study, we identify how ALS-linked SOD1 mutations lead to changes in the cellular health of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae We find that it is not the accumulation of aggregates but the loss of Sod1 protein stability that drives cellular dysfunction. The toxic effect of Sod1 instability does not correlate with a loss of mitochondrial function or increased production of reactive oxygen species, but instead prevents acidification of the vacuole, perturbs metabolic regulation and promotes senescence. Central to the toxic gain-of-function seen with the SOD1 mutants examined was an inability to regulate amino acid biosynthesis. We also report that leucine supplementation results in an improvement in motor function in a Caenorhabditis elegans model of ALS. Our data suggest that metabolic dysfunction plays an important role in Sod1-mediated toxicity in both the yeast and worm models of ALS.

Identification of phenoxyacetamide derivatives as novel DOT1L inhibitors via docking screening and molecular dynamics simulation.

Dot1-like protein (DOT1L) is a histone methyltransferase that has become a novel and promising target for acute leukemias bearing mixed lineage leukemia (MLL) gene rearrangements. In this study, a hierarchical docking-based virtual screening combined with molecular dynamic (MD) simulation was performed to identify DOT1L inhibitors with novel scaffolds. Consequently, 8 top-ranked hits were eventually identified and were further subjected to MD simulation. It was indicated that all hits could reach equilibrium with DOT1L in the MD simulation and further binding free energy calculations suggested that phenoxyacetamide-derived hits such as L01, L03, L04 and L05 exhibited remarkably higher binding affinity compared to other hits. Among them, L03 showed both the lowest glide score (-12.281) and the most favorable binding free energy (-303.9+/-16.5kJ/mol), thereby making it a promising lead for further optimization.

Reactivation of mutant p53 by a dietary-related compound phenethyl isothiocyanate inhibits tumor growth.

Mutations in the p53 tumor-suppressor gene are prevalent in human cancers. The majority of p53 mutations are missense, which can be classified into contact mutations (that directly disrupts the DNA-binding activity of p53) and structural mutations (that disrupts the conformation of p53). Both of the mutations can disable the normal wild-type (WT) p53 activities. Nevertheless, it has been amply documented that small molecules can rescue activity from mutant p53 by restoring WT tumor-suppressive functions. These compounds hold promise for cancer therapy and have now entered clinical trials. In this study, we show that cruciferous-vegetable-derived phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) can reactivate p53 mutant under in vitro and in vivo conditions, revealing a new mechanism of action for a dietary-related compound. PEITC exhibits growth-inhibitory activity in cells expressing p53 mutants with preferential activity toward p53(R175), one of the most frequent 'hotspot' mutations within the p53 sequence. Mechanistic studies revealed that PEITC induces apoptosis in a p53(R175) mutant-dependent manner by restoring p53 WT conformation and transactivation functions. Accordingly, in PEITC-treated cells the reactivated p53(R175) mutant induces apoptosis by activating canonical WT p53 targets, inducing a delay in S and G2/M phase, and by phosphorylating ATM/CHK2. Interestingly, the growth-inhibitory effects of PEITC depend on the redox state of the cell. Further, PEITC treatments render the p53(R175) mutant sensitive to degradation by the proteasome and autophagy in a concentration-dependent manner. PEITC-induced reactivation of p53(R175) and its subsequent sensitivity to the degradation pathways likely contribute to its anticancer activities. We further show that dietary supplementation of PEITC is able to reactivate WT activity in vivo as well, inhibiting tumor growth in xenograft mouse model. These findings provide the first example of mutant p53 reactivation by a dietary compound and have important implications for cancer prevention and therapy.

Significance of the pathogenic mutation T372R in the Yin Yang 1 protein interaction with DNA--thermodynamic studies.

This work focuses on the pathogenic missense mutation in YY1 protein correlated with insulinomas. Based on in vitro studies, we demonstrate that the mutation does not affect the secondary structure of either zinc fingers or the N-terminal fragment (NTF) of the protein. Apart from a slight increase in the protein's compactness, no changes in the tertiary structure were observed. The introduced mutation significantly alters DNA-binding properties, both the affinity and enthalpy-entropy contribution of the process, which are highly dependent on the recognized sequence. Obtained results indicate concerted rather than a modular mode of sequence recognition by YY1 with the significant impact of a disordered NTF.

The yin-yang of kinase activation and unfolding explains the peculiarity of Val600 in the activation segment of BRAF.

Many driver mutations in cancer are specific in that they occur at significantly higher rates than - presumably - functionally alternative mutations. For example, V600E in the BRAF hydrophobic activation segment (AS) pocket accounts for >95% of all kinase mutations. While many hypotheses tried to explain such significant mutation patterns, conclusive explanations are lacking. Here, we use experimental and in silico structure-energy statistical analyses, to elucidate why the V600E mutation, but no other mutation at this, or any other positions in BRAF's hydrophobic pocket, is predominant. We find that BRAF mutation frequencies depend on the equilibrium between the destabilization of the hydrophobic pocket, the overall folding energy, the activation of the kinase and the number of bases required to change the corresponding amino acid. Using a random forest classifier, we quantitatively dissected the parameters contributing to BRAF AS cancer frequencies. These findings can be applied to genome-wide association studies and prediction models.

Analysing the Effect of Mutation on Protein Function and Discovering Potential Inhibitors of CDK4: Molecular Modelling and Dynamics Studies.

The cyclin-dependent kinase 4 (CDK4)-cyclin D1 complex plays a crucial role in the transition from the G1 phase to S phase of the cell cycle. Among the CDKs, CDK4 is one of the genes most frequently affected by somatic genetic variations that are associated with various forms of cancer. Thus, because the abnormal function of the CDK4-cyclin D1 protein complex might play a vital role in causing cancer, CDK4 can be considered a genetically validated therapeutic target. In this study, we used a systematic, integrated computational approach to identify deleterious nsSNPs and predict their effects on protein-protein (CDK4-cyclin D1) and protein-ligand (CDK4-flavopiridol) interactions. This analysis resulted in the identification of possible inhibitors of mutant CDK4 proteins that bind the conformations induced by deleterious nsSNPs. Using computational prediction methods, we identified five nsSNPs as highly deleterious: R24C, Y180H, A205T, R210P, and R246C. From molecular docking and molecular dynamic studies, we observed that these deleterious nsSNPs affected CDK4-cyclin D1 and CDK4-flavopiridol interactions. Furthermore, in a virtual screening approach, the drug 5_7_DIHYDROXY_ 2_ (3_4_5_TRI HYDROXYPHENYL) _4H_CHROMEN_ 4_ONE displayed good binding affinity for proteins with the mutations R24C or R246C, the drug diosmin displayed good binding affinity for the protein with the mutation Y180H, and the drug rutin displayed good binding affinity for proteins with the mutations A205T and R210P. Overall, this computational investigation of the CDK4 gene highlights the link between genetic variation and biological phenomena in human cancer and aids in the discovery of molecularly targeted therapies for personalized treatment.

Transactivation Function-2 of Estrogen Receptor α Contains Transactivation Function-1-regulating Element.

ERα has a ligand-dependent transactivation function in the ligand binding domain of ERα C terminus (AF-2) and a ligand-independent activation function in the N terminus (AF-1). It is still not fully understood how AF-1 and AF-2 activities are regulated cooperatively by ligands. To evaluate the AF-1 involvement in the estrogenic activities of various compounds, we analyzed these transactivation functions using AF-1-truncated and AF-2-mutated ERα mutants. AF-2 is composed of two domains with flexible and static regions. We used an AF-2 flexible region mutant and an AF-2 static region mutant. Both mutants have been reported as non-E2 responsive due to disruption of E2-mediated coactivator recruitment to the AF-2. The AF-2 mutants were not activated by agonists, but surprisingly antagonists and selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) activated the AF-2 mutants. This antagonist reversal activity was derived from AF-1. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the AF-2 contains an AF-1 suppression function using C-terminal-truncated ERα mutants. From these findings we hypothesized that the mutation of AF-2 disrupted its ability to suppress AF-1, causing the antagonist reversal. To assess the AF-2-mediated AF-1 suppression, we analyzed the transcription activity of physically separated AF-1 and AF-2 using a novel hybrid reporter assay. We observed that the AF-1 activity was not suppressed by the physically separated AF-2. Furthermore, SERMs did not induce the AF-1-mediated activity from the separated mutant AF-2, which differed from the intact protein. These results imply that SERM activity is dependent on a conformational change of the full-length ERα molecule, which allows for AF-1 activation.

Membrane targeting of MnSOD is essential for oxidative stress tolerance of nitrogen-fixing cultures of Anabaena sp. strain PCC7120.

The nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium, Anabaena PCC7120 encodes for a membrane-targeted 30 kDa Mn-superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) and a cytosolic FeSOD. The MnSOD is post-translationally processed to 27 and 24 kDa forms in the cytosol and periplasm/thylakoid lumen. The extent of cleavage of signal and linker peptides at the N-terminus is dependent on the availability of combined nitrogen during growth. While the 24 and 27 kDa forms are present in near equal proportions under nitrogen-fixing conditions, the 24 kDa form is predominant under nitrogen-supplemented conditions. Individual contribution of these forms of MnSOD to total oxidative stress tolerance was analysed using recombinant Anabaena strains overexpressing either different molecular forms of MnSOD or MnSOD defective in the cleavage of signal/linker peptide. Targeting of MnSOD to the membrane and subsequent cleavage to release both the 24 and 27 kDa forms was essential for oxidative stress tolerance under nitrogen-fixing conditions. On the other hand, the cleavage of linker peptide was absolutely essential and the release of cytosolic 24 kDa form of MnSOD was obligatory for developing oxidative stress tolerance under nitrogen-supplemented conditions. Thus, a single MnSOD caters to the reduction of superoxide radical in both cytosol and thylakoid lumen/periplasm irrespective of the N-status of growth by regulating its cleavage. This is the first report on the physiological advantage of membrane-targeting and processing of MnSOD in either bacteria or plants. The higher oxidative stress tolerance offered by the cytosolic form of MnSOD has possibly resulted in retention of only the cytosolic form in bacterial non-nitrogen-fixers during evolution.