Menaquinone 4 Reduces Bone Loss in Ovariectomized Mice through Dual Regulation of Bone Remodeling.

Epidemiologic studies showed that higher vitamin K (VK) consumption correlates with a reduced risk of osteoporosis, yet the dispute remains about whether VK is effective in improving bone mineral density (BMD). We sought to discover the anti-osteoporotic effect of menaquinone-4 (MK-4) and evaluate the expression of critical genes related to bone formation and bone resorption pathways in the body. Fifty female C57BL/6 mice (aged 13 weeks) were randomly arranged to a sham-operated group (SHAM, treated with corn oil) and four ovariectomized groups that were administered corn oil (OVX group), estradiol valerate (EV, 2 mg/kg body weight as the positive control), low or high doses of VK (LVK and HVK; 20 and 40 mg MK-4/kg body weight, respectively) by gavage every other day for 12 weeks. Body and uterine weight, serum biochemical indicators, bone microarchitecture, hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining, and the mRNA expression of critical genes related to bone formation and bone resorption pathways were assessed. Either dose of MK-4 supplementation increased the alkaline phosphatase (ALP), decreased the undercarboxylated osteocalcin (ucOC) and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRACP, p < 0.05) levels, and presented higher BMD, percent bone volume (BV/TV), trabecular thickness (Tb.Th), and lower trabecular separation (Tb.Sp) and structure model index (SMI, p < 0.05) compared with the OVX group. Additionally, both doses of MK4 increased the mRNA expression of Runx2 and Bmp2 (p < 0.05), whereas the doses down-regulated Pu.1 and Nfatc1 (p < 0.05) mRNA expression, the high dose decreased Osx and Tgfb (p < 0.05) mRNA expression, and the low dose decreased Mitd and Akt1 (p < 0.05) mRNA expression. These data show the dual regulatory effects of MK-4 on bone remodeling in ovariectomized mice: the promotion of bone anabolic activity and inhibition of osteoclast differentiation, which provides a novel idea for treating osteoporosis.

The emerging role of miR-128 in musculoskeletal diseases.

MicroRNA-128 (miR-128) is associated with cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, apoptosis, and survival. Genetic analysis studies have demonstrated that miR-128 participates in bone metabolism, which involves bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells, osteoblasts, osteoclasts, and adipocytes. miR-128 also participates in regeneration of skeletal muscles by targeting myoblast-associated proteins. The deregulation of miR-128 could lead to a series of musculoskeletal diseases. In this review, we discuss recent findings of miR-128 in relation to bone metabolism and muscle regeneration to determine its potential therapeutic effects in musculoskeletal diseases, and to propose directions for future research in this significant field.

Network pharmacology approach to elucidate possible action mechanisms of Sinomenii Caulis for treating osteoporosis.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Sinomenii Caulis (SC) is a well-konwn traditional Chinese medicine used for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), dermatophytosis and paralysis. Patients with RA are usually secondary to osteoporosis, but the potential protective effect of SC on osteoporosis (OP) is seldom reported and its possible action mechanism is little known. AIM: The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the anti-osteoporosis effects of SC extract and alkaloids in prednisolone (Pre)-induced OP of zebrafish, and then to explore the potential mechanism of SC on system level by network pharmacology. METHODS: Firstly, zebrafish OP model was established to investigate the anti-osteoporosis effect of SC. Secondly, the targets of SC and OP from multiple databases were collected, and Compound-Target-Pathway network based on protein-protein interaction (PPI) was constructed. Moreover, gene enrichment and annotation were performed via the DAVID server. Finally, the reliability of the network pharmacology prediction results in Pre-induced OP of zebrafish was verified by qRT-PCR. RESULTS: The results indicated that SC extract and alkaloids have remarkable ability to promote bone formation of cranial bones and reduce TRAP contents in Pre-induced OP of zebrafish. 32 OP-related ingredients in SC and 77 OP-related targets were screened from multiple databases, and 15 OP-related pathways were enriched by the KEGG database. Further experimental validation indicated that SC extract and alkaloids could regulate the expression of MAPK14, CASP3, CXCL8, IL-1ß, IL6, PTGS2, TNF-α, ESR1, and MMP9 for treatment of OP. CONCLUSION: In summary, we conducted an integrative analysis to provide convincing evidence that SC may partially alleviate OP by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines and regulating of RANK/RANKL/OPG system.

On the genetic determinants of hypovitaminosis D.

Hypovitaminosis D, defined by low serum levels of 25(OH)D, is a recognized worldwide public health problem. The most accepted definition considers that deficiency occurs with serum levels fall below 12 ng/ml of 25(OH)D. Long term vitamin D deficiency results in decreased bone mineralization, secondary hyperparathyroidism, increased cortical bone loss (pathogenesis of osteoporosis and hip fractures), differentiation and division of various cell types, muscle strength, diabetes type 2, blood pressure, etc. Twin- and family-based studies indicate that genetic factors influence serum 25(OH)D levels. Genetic studies have shown single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are linked to low serum 25(OH)D concentrations through changes in the activity of the enzymes of the 1a,25(OH)2D metabolic pathway. Carriers of high genetic risk scores would need a h igher amount of vitamin D supplementation to achieve adequate serum 25(OH)D concentrations. Clinicians would not need to indicate studies to identify patients with vitamin D insufficiency of genetic origin. They should instruct their patients on their own care, to control the intake of vitamin D and the serum 25(OH)D levels until the latter are adequate. Overall, the literature reveals that the consequences of hypovitaminosis D on bone health are observed in old and infrequently in young subjects. A probable explanation for the latter is: if the rate of bone remodeling allows it, bone tissue has endogenous (genetics, hormones) and exogenous determinants (diet, physical activity) that may compensate the variables of bone health. The consequences of vitamin D deficit on bone health, has not been completely uncovered.

La hipovitaminosis D, definida por bajos niveles séricos de 25(OH)D (<12 ng/ml), es un reconocido problema de salud pública mundial. La deficiencia de vitamina D a largo plazo resulta en una disminución de la mi neralización ósea, hiperparatiroidismo secundario, pérdida de hueso cortical (patogénesis de la osteoporosis y fracturas de cadera), diferenciación y división de varios tipos de células, fuerza muscular, diabetes tipo 2, pres ión arterial, etc. Estudios genéticos han demostrado que algunos "polimorfismos de un solo nucleótido" (SNP) están relacionados con bajas concentraciones séricas de 25(OH)D a través de reducción en la actividad de las enzimas implicadas en la síntesis de 1a,25(OH)2D. Los médicos no necesitan indicar un estudio genético para identificar a la insuficiencia de vitamina D de causa genética. Bastará con instruir a los pacientes sobre su propio cuidado y controlar la ingesta de vitamina D y los niveles séricos de 25(OH)D hasta que estos últimos sean adecuados. En general, la literatura revela que las consecuencias de la hipovitaminosis D sobre la salud ósea se observan en las personas añosas y con poca frecuencia en sujetos jóvenes. Una explicación probable para esta situación es: si la tasa de remodelación ósea lo permite, el tejido óseo tiene factores endógenos (genéticos, hormonales) y exógenos (dieta, actividad física) que pueden compensar las variables de la salud ósea. Las consecuencias del déficit de vitamina D sobre la salud ósea aún no se conocen completamente.

On the genetic determinants of hypovitaminosis D

Hypovitaminosis D, defined by low serum levels of 25(OH)D, is a recognized worldwide public health problem. The most accepted definition considers that deficiency occurs with serum levels fall below 12 ng/ml of 25(OH)D. Long term vitamin D deficiency results in decreased bone mineralization, secondary hyperparathyroidism, increased cortical bone loss (pathogenesis of osteoporosis and hip fractures), differentiation and division of various cell types, muscle strength, diabetes type 2, blood pressure, etc. Twin- and family-based studies indicate that genetic factors influence serum 25(OH)D levels. Genetic studies have shown single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are linked to low serum 25(OH)D concentrations through changes in the activity of the enzymes of the 1α,25(OH)2D metabolic pathway. Carriers of high genetic risk scores would need a h igher amount of vitamin D supplementation to achieve adequate serum 25(OH)D concentrations. Clinicians would not need to indicate studies to identify patients with vitamin D insufficiency of genetic origin. They should instruct their patients on their own care, to control the intake of vitamin D and the serum 25(OH)D levels until the latter are adequate. Overall, the literature reveals that the consequences of hypovitaminosis D on bone health are observed in old and infrequently in young subjects. A probable explanation for the latter is: if the rate of bone remodeling allows it, bone tissue has endogenous (genetics, hormones) and exogenous determinants (diet, physical activity) that may compensate the variables of bone health. The consequences of vitamin D deficit on bone health, has not been completely uncovered.

La hipovitaminosis D, definida por bajos niveles séricos de 25(OH)D (<12 ng/ml), es un reconocido problema de salud pública mundial. La deficiencia de vitamina D a largo plazo resulta en una disminución de la mi neralización ósea, hiperparatiroidismo secundario, pérdida de hueso cortical (patogénesis de la osteoporosis y fracturas de cadera), diferenciación y división de varios tipos de células, fuerza muscular, diabetes tipo 2, pres ión arterial, etc. Estudios genéticos han demostrado que algunos "polimorfismos de un solo nucleótido" (SNP) están relacionados con bajas concentraciones séricas de 25(OH)D a través de reducción en la actividad de las enzimas implicadas en la síntesis de 1α,25(OH)2D. Los médicos no necesitan indicar un estudio genético para identificar a la insuficiencia de vitamina D de causa genética. Bastará con instruir a los pacientes sobre su propio cuidado y controlar la ingesta de vitamina D y los niveles séricos de 25(OH)D hasta que estos últimos sean adecuados. En general, la literatura revela que las consecuencias de la hipovitaminosis D sobre la salud ósea se observan en las personas añosas y con poca frecuencia en sujetos jóvenes. Una explicación probable para esta situación es: si la tasa de remodelación ósea lo permite, el tejido óseo tiene factores endógenos (genéticos, hormonales) y exógenos (dieta, actividad física) que pueden compensar las variables de la salud ósea. Las consecuencias del déficit de vitamina D sobre la salud ósea aún no se conocen completamente.

Pathophysiological characteristics and gene transcriptional profiling of bone microstructure in a low calcium diet fed laying hens.

Calcium depletion is a valuable non-invasive tool for studying skeletal system disorders. A low calcium diet (LCD) was used to examine the pathophysiological characteristics and molecular mechanisms of osteoporotic damage in caged laying hens. Sixty 64-wk-old laying hens were randomly housed in single-bird cages, and the cages were divided into 2 treatments: fed a regular calcium diet (RCD, 3.69%) or a LCD (1.56%) for 8 wk. The diet-induced changes of serum bone remodeling indicators, bone strength, microstructure of the distal femur, and the gene expression profiling of keel bone were measured. Compared to RCD hens, LCD hens had higher activity of serum alkaline phosphatase and tartrate resistant acid phosphatase but lower serum calcium concentrations with reduced tibial and femoral mass, width, and strength (P < 0.05). In addition, LCD hens had greater densities of osteoclasts, osteoblasts, connective tissue cells, and osteoid in the trabecular bone (P < 0.05). The transcriptome analysis revealed that 563 unigenes were differentially expressed in keel bone between LCD and RCD hens. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway analyses revealed that these differentially expressed genes were mainly associated with the osteoporosis-related signaling pathways involved in the biological functions of the bone cellular and extracellular structural modulations. The real-time PCR analysis further confirmed that the LCD enhanced the mRNA expression of collagen type 1 alpha 2, integrin-binding sialoprotein and periostin, but inhibited sclerostin expression. These findings indicate that LCD hens have a higher bone turnover and micro-architectural damage compared to RCD hens. The results further evidence dietary supplement of calcium is a critical nutrient strategy for improving hen skeletal health.

Transcriptomic characterization of signaling pathways associated with osteoblastic differentiation of MC-3T3E1 cells.

Bone remodeling involves the coordinated actions of osteoclasts, which resorb the calcified bony matrix, and osteoblasts, which refill erosion pits created by osteoclasts to restore skeletal integrity and adapt to changes in mechanical load. Osteoblasts are derived from pluripotent mesenchymal stem cell precursors, which undergo differentiation under the influence of a host of local and environmental cues. To characterize the autocrine/paracrine signaling networks associated with osteoblast maturation and function, we performed gene network analysis using complementary "agnostic" DNA microarray and "targeted" NanoString nCounter datasets derived from murine MC3T3-E1 cells induced to undergo synchronized osteoblastic differentiation in vitro. Pairwise datasets representing changes in gene expression associated with growth arrest (day 2 to 5 in culture), differentiation (day 5 to 10 in culture), and osteoblast maturation (day 10 to 28 in culture) were analyzed using Ingenuity Systems Pathways Analysis to generate predictions about signaling pathway activity based on the temporal sequence of changes in target gene expression. Our data indicate that some pathways involved in osteoblast differentiation, e.g. Wnt/ß-catenin signaling, are most active early in the process, while others, e.g. TGFß/BMP, cytokine/JAK-STAT and TNFα/RANKL signaling, increase in activity as differentiation progresses. Collectively, these pathways contribute to the sequential expression of genes involved in the synthesis and mineralization of extracellular matrix. These results provide insight into the temporal coordination and complex interplay between signaling networks controlling gene expression during osteoblast differentiation. A more complete understanding of these processes may aid the discovery of novel methods to promote osteoblast development for the treatment of conditions characterized by low bone mineral density.

Human Genetics of Sclerosing Bone Disorders.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The group of sclerosing bone disorders encompasses a variety of disorders all marked by increased bone mass. In this review, we give an overview of the genetic causes of this heterogeneous group of disorders and briefly touch upon the value of these findings for the development of novel therapeutic agents. RECENT FINDINGS: Advances in the next-generation sequencing technologies are accelerating the molecular dissection of the pathogenic mechanisms underlying skeletal dysplasias. Throughout the years, the genetic cause of these disorders has been extensively studied which resulted in the identification of a variety of disease-causing genes and pathways that are involved in bone formation by osteoblasts, bone resorption by osteoclasts, or both processes. Due to this rapidly increasing knowledge, the insights into the regulatory mechanisms of bone metabolism are continuously improving resulting in the identification of novel therapeutic targets for disorders with reduced bone mass and increased bone fragility.

PTH (1-34) affects bone turnover governed by osteocytes exposed to fluoride.

Exposure to fluoride from environmental sources remains an overlooked, but serious public health risk. In this study, we looked into the role osteocytes play on the mechanism underlying fluoride induced osteopathology. We analyzed bone formation and resorption related genes generated by osteocytes that were exposed to varied doses of fluoride with and without PTH in vitro. Correspondingly, osteogenesis and osteoclastogenesis related genes were also investigated in rats exposed to fluoride for 8 weeks, and the PTH(1-34)was applied at the last 3 weeks to observe its role in regulating bone turnover upon fluoride treatment. The data in vitro indicated that fluoride treatment inhibited Sost expression of mRNA and protein and stimulated RANKL mRNA protein expression as well as the RANKL/OPG ratio in the primary osteocytes. Single PTH treatment played the similar role on expression of these genes and proteins. The PTH combined administration enhanced the action of fluoride treatment on RNAKL/OPG and SOST/Sclerostin. The up-regulation of RANKL and decreasing of Sost induced by fluoride and/or PTH treatment was validated in vivo and suggests that osteocytes are a major source of RANKL and Sost, both of which play essential roles in fluoride affecting osteogenesis and osteoclastogenesis. Expression of Wnt/ß-catenin was up-regulated in both in vitro osteocytes treated with high dose of fluoride and bone tissue of rats in the presence of fluoride and PTH. In vivo, fluoride and single PTH stimulated bone turnover respectively, furthermore, PTH combined with low dose of fluoride treatment reinforced the osteogenesis and osteoclastogenesis genes expression, however, co-treatment of PTH reversed the effect of high dose of fluoride on osteogenesis and osteoclastogenensis related factors. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that osteocytes play a key role in fluoride activated bone turnover, and PTH participates in the process of fluoride modulating SOST/Sclerostin and RANKL expression.

Analysis of the influence of the T393C polymorphism of the GNAS gene on the clinical expression of primary hyperparathyroidism.

BACKGROUND: The receptor of parathyroid hormone and parathyroid hormone-related-protein (PTH/PTHrp) is located in the cell membrane of target tissues - kidney and osteoblasts. It is a G protein-coupled-receptor whose Gsα subunit is encoded by the GNAS gene. Our aim was to study whether the single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) T393C of the GNAS gene is associated with renal stones, bone mineral density (BMD), or bone remodelling markers in primary hyperparathyroidism (PHPT). METHODS: An analysis was made of clinical and biochemical parameters and densitometric values in three areas and their relationship with the T393C SNP of the GNAS gene in 261 patients with primary hyperparathyroidism and in 328 healthy controls. Genotyping was performed using the Custom Taqman® SNP Genotyping assay. RESULTS: The genotype frequencies of GNAS T/C 393 were similar in the control and PHPT groups. No association was found between genotypes and clinical expression of PHPT (renal stones and bone fractures). A nonstatistically significant trend was seen to lower BMD in the lumbar spine, femoral neck, and total hip in both PHPT and control C homozygote subjects. CONCLUSION: Genetic susceptibility to PHPT related to the GNAS T393C polymorphism or a major influence in its development and clinical expression were found. A C allele-related susceptibility to lower BMD in trabecular bone in both PHPT and control subjects is not sufficient to suggest a more severe clinical expression of PHPT. This trend may be considered as a basis for further studies with larger sample sizes and complementary functional evaluation.

Associations between genetic variants and the effect of letrozole and exemestane on bone mass and bone turnover.

Adjuvant therapy for hormone receptor (HR) positive postmenopausal breast cancer patients includes aromatase inhibitors (AI). While both the non-steroidal AI letrozole and the steroidal AI exemestane decrease serum estrogen concentrations, there is evidence that exemestane may be less detrimental to bone. We hypothesized that single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) predict effects of AIs on bone turnover. Early stage HR-positive breast cancer patients were enrolled in a randomized trial of exemestane versus letrozole. Effects of AI on bone mineral density (BMD) and bone turnover markers (BTM), and associations between SNPs in 24 candidate genes and changes in BMD or BTM were determined. Of the 503 enrolled patients, paired BMD data were available for 123 and 101 patients treated with letrozole and exemestane, respectively, and paired BTM data were available for 175 and 173 patients, respectively. The mean change in lumbar spine BMD was significantly greater for letrozole-treated (-3.2 %) compared to exemestane-treated patients (-1.0 %) (p = 0.0016). Urine N-telopeptide was significantly increased in patients treated with exemestane (p = 0.001) but not letrozole. Two SNPs (rs4870061 and rs9322335) in ESR1 and one SNP (rs10140457) in ESR2 were associated with decreased BMD in letrozole-treated patients. In the exemestane-treated patients, SNPs in ESR1 (Rs2813543) and CYP19A1 (Rs6493497) were associated with decreased bone density. Exemestane had a less negative impact on bone density compared to letrozole, and the effects of AI therapy on bone may be impacted by genetic variants in the ER pathway.

Probiotics (Bifidobacterium longum) Increase Bone Mass Density and Upregulate Sparc and Bmp-2 Genes in Rats with Bone Loss Resulting from Ovariectomy.

Probiotics are live microorganisms that exert beneficial effects on the host, when administered in adequate amounts. Mostly, probiotics affect the gastrointestinal (GI) tract of the host and alter the composition of gut microbiota. Nowadays, the incidence of hip fractures due to osteoporosis is increasing worldwide. Ovariectomized (OVX) rats have fragile bone due to estrogen deficiency and mimic the menopausal conditions in women. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effects of Bifidobacterium longum (B. longum) on bone mass density (BMD), bone mineral content (BMC), bone remodeling, bone structure, and gene expression in OVX rats. The rats were randomly assigned into 3 groups (sham, OVX, and the OVX group supplemented with 1 mL of B. longum 10(8)-10(9) colony forming units (CFU)/mL). B. longum was given once daily for 16 weeks, starting from 2 weeks after the surgery. The B. longum supplementation increased (p < 0.05) serum osteocalcin (OC) and osteoblasts, bone formation parameters, and decreased serum C-terminal telopeptide (CTX) and osteoclasts, bone resorption parameters. It also altered the microstructure of the femur. Consequently, it increased BMD by increasing (p < 0.05) the expression of Sparc and Bmp-2 genes. B. longum alleviated bone loss in OVX rats and enhanced BMD by decreasing bone resorption and increasing bone formation.

[Hormones and osteoporosis update. Regulation of bone remodeling by neuropeptides and neurotransmitters].

From the discovery of the regulation of bone remodelling by leptin, much attention has been focused on neurogenic control of bone remodelling. Various hypothalamic neuropeptides, which are involved in appetite regulation, are now revealed to be important regulators of bone remodelling. More recently, neurotransmitters, such as serotonin or catecholamines, are proven to be bone remodelling regulators.

Effects of calcium sources and soluble silicate on bone metabolism and the related gene expression in mice.

OBJECTIVE: The effects of five calcium (Ca) sources were compared for bone biochemical and mechanical properties and the related gene expression using mice, from the viewpoint of their soluble silicon (Si) content. METHODS: Weanling male mice were fed diets containing 1% Ca supplemented with CaCO(3) as the control (CT), coral sand (CS), fossil stony coral (FSC), fish bone (FC) and eggshell (EC) powders, and 50 ppm of Si in the CT diet for 6 mo. The mRNA expressions related to bone remodeling were quantified by real-time polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS: Soluble Si content was 9.83, 7.17, 2.48, 0.29, and 0.20 ppm for the CS, FC, FSC, EC, and Ca-deficient basal diets, respectively. Si, CS, and FSC, in order, significantly increased dry and ash weights, Ca and hydroxyproline contents, and alkaline phosphatase and decreased tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase and urinary excretion of hydroxyproline compared with the CT group. Si significantly increased and FC decreased femoral strength and stiffness. In the mRNA expression related to osteoblastogenesis, Si and CS significantly increased runt-related transcription factor 2. Si, CS, and FSC, in order, significantly decreased and FC and EC increased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma. In the mRNA expression related to osteoclastogenesis, Si and CS significantly increased and FC and EC decreased the osteoprotegerin/receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappaB ligand ratio, whereas Si and CS decreased transforming growth factor-beta. CONCLUSION: The results indicated that soluble silicate and CS, with the highest Si content among Ca sources, improved bone biochemical and mechanical properties through stimulation of gene expression related to osteoblastogenesis and suppression of that related to osteoclastogenesis.

Loss of MMP-2 disrupts skeletal and craniofacial development and results in decreased bone mineralization, joint erosion and defects in osteoblast and osteoclast growth.

The 'vanishing bone' or inherited osteolysis/arthritis syndromes represent a heterogeneous group of skeletal disorders characterized by mineralization defects of affected bones and joints. Differing in anatomical distribution, severity and associated syndromic features, gene identification in each 'vanishing bone' disorder should provide unique insights into genetic/molecular pathways contributing to the overall control of skeletal growth and development. We previously described and then demonstrated that the novel autosomal recessive osteolysis/arthritis syndrome, multicentric osteolysis with arthritis (MOA) (MIM #605156), was caused by inactivating mutations in the MMP2 gene [Al Aqeel, A., Al Sewairi, W., Edress, B., Gorlin, R.J., Desnick, R.J. and Martignetti, J.A. (2000) Inherited multicentric osteolysis with arthritis: A variant resembling Torg syndrome in a Saudi family. Am. J. Med. Genet., 93, 11-18.]. These in vivo results were counterintuitive and unexpected since previous in vitro studies suggested that MMP-2 overexpression and increased activity, not deficiency, would result in the bone and joint features of MOA. The apparent lack of a murine model [Itoh, T., Ikeda, T., Gomi, H., Nakao, S., Suzuki, T. and Itohara, S. (1997) Unaltered secretion of beta-amyloid precursor protein in gelatinase A (matrix metalloproteinase 2)-deficient mice. J. Biol. Chem., 272, 22389-22392.] has hindered studies on disease pathogenesis and, more fundamentally, in addressing the paradox of how functional loss of a single proteolytic enzyme results in an apparent increase in bone loss. Here, we report that Mmp2-/- mice display attenuated features of human MOA including progressive loss of bone mineral density, articular cartilage destruction and abnormal long bone and craniofacial development. Moreover, these changes are associated with markedly and developmentally restricted decreases in osteoblast and osteoclast numbers in vivo. Mmp2-/- mice have approximately 50% fewer osteoblasts and osteoclasts than control littermates at 4 days of life but these differences have nearly resolved by 4 weeks of age. In addition, despite normal cell numbers in vivo at 8 weeks of life, Mmp2-/- bone marrow cells are unable to effectively support osteoblast and osteoclast growth and differentiation in culture. Targeted inhibition of MMP-2 using siRNA in human SaOS2 and murine MC3T3 osteoblast cell lines resulted in decreased cell proliferation rates. Taken together, our findings suggest that MMP-2 plays a direct role in early skeletal development and bone cell growth and proliferation. Thus, Mmp2-/- mice provide a valuable biological resource for studying the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the human disease and defining the in vivo physiological role of MMP-2.

Osteoprotegrin knockout mice demonstrate abnormal remodeling of the otic capsule and progressive hearing loss.

OBJECTIVES: The otic capsule, when compared with other bones in the body, is unique in that it undergoes no significant remodeling of bone after development. We previously demonstrated that osteoprotegerin (OPG), which inhibits formation and function of osteoclasts, is produced at high levels in the inner ear of normal mice and secreted into the perilymph from where it diffuses into the surrounding otic capsule bone through a lacunocanalicular system. To test our hypothesis that the high level of OPG may be important in the inhibition of otic capsule remodeling, we studied the light microscopic histology of the otic capsule in OPG knockout mice for evidence of abnormal remodeling of bone. We also tested the hearing in OPG knockout mice to determine whether OPG and its influence on surrounding bone is important for auditory function. METHODS: Temporal bone histopathology and pathophysiology were compared in homozygous OPG knockout mice and C57BL/6 (B6) mice, the background strain for the knockouts. Auditory function in age-matched animals from each group was evaluated at approximately 4-week intervals from 8 to 21 weeks using frequency-specific auditory brainstem responses (ABR) and distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAE). After each of the last three evaluations, the cochleae from one mouse of each group were harvested, processed, and examined by light microscopy. RESULTS: Osteoprotegerin knockout mice demonstrated abnormal remodeling of bone within the otic capsule with multiple foci showing osteoclastic bone resorption and formation of new bone. Such changes were not seen in the age-matched B6 controls. The active bone remodeling process in the knockout animals showed many similarities to otosclerosis seen in human temporal bones. Over the time period that we monitored, auditory function was significantly and progressively compromised in the knockout animals relative to B6 controls. At the earliest age of test (8 wk), the loss was apparent as a mild, high-frequency reduction in sensitivity by ABR. In contrast, DPOAE losses in the knockouts were substantial even at 8 weeks, and by 21 weeks, these losses exceeded our equipment limits. Results of ABR testing showed hearing sensitivity changes in the animals of the background strain were confined largely to the high frequencies, whereas OPG knockouts demonstrated substantial low-frequency shifts in addition to those at high frequencies. CONCLUSIONS: The histopathological and pathophysiological findings in OPG knockout mice support the hypothesis that OPG is important in the inhibition of bone remodeling within the otic capsule and the maintenance of normal auditory function. This mouse may provide a valuable animal model of human otosclerosis.

Bone remodeling: new aspects of a key process that controls skeletal maintenance and repair.

Bone remodeling is the concerted interplay of two cellular activities: osteoclastic bone resorption and osteoblastic bone formation. Bone remodeling is the physiologic process that maintains bone mass, skeletal integrity and skeletal function. A molecular understanding of this process is therefore of paramount importance for almost all aspects of skeletal physiology and many facets of bone diseases. Based on the morphological observation of the BMU-"bone multicellular unit" or "bone metabolic unit"-and a wide body of in vitro data, bone remodeling was thought to be controlled locally through functional coupling of resorption and formation and vice versa. However, recent genetic studies have shown that there is no obligatory tight cross-control of bone formation and bone resorption in vivo and that there is also a central axis controlling bone formation, one aspect of bone remodeling. The molecule that inhibits bone formation through a hypothalamic relay is leptin. Following binding to its receptor located on the ventromedial nuclei of the hypothalamus, leptin's action on bone formation is mediated via a neuronal signaling cascade that involves the ss-adrenergic system. The overall goal of this review is to show how the dialogue between clinical medicine and mouse genetics helped to uncover a new concept in skeletal physiology.

Leptin inhibits bone formation through a hypothalamic relay: a central control of bone mass.

Gonadal failure induces bone loss while obesity prevents it. This raises the possibility that bone mass, body weight, and gonadal function are regulated by common pathways. To test this hypothesis, we studied leptin-deficient and leptin receptor-deficient mice that are obese and hypogonadic. Both mutant mice have an increased bone formation leading to high bone mass despite hypogonadism and hypercortisolism. This phenotype is dominant, independent of the presence of fat, and specific for the absence of leptin signaling. There is no leptin signaling in osteoblasts but intracerebroventricular infusion of leptin causes bone loss in leptin-deficient and wild-type mice. This study identifies leptin as a potent inhibitor of bone formation acting through the central nervous system and therefore describes the central nature of bone mass control and its disorders.