Understanding the Role of Values in Health Policy Decision-Making From the Perspective of Policy-Makers and Stakeholders: A Multiple-Case Embedded Study in Chile and Colombia.

BACKGROUND: Chile and Colombia are examples of Latin American countries with health systems shaped by similar values. Recently, both countries have crafted policies to regulate the participation of private for-profit insurance companies in their health systems, but through very different mechanisms. This study asks: what values are important in the decision-making processes that crafted these policies? And how and why are they used? METHODS: An embedded multiple-case study design was carried out for 2 specific decisions in each country: (1) in Chile, the development of the Universal Plan of Explicit Entitlements -AUGE/GES - and mandating universal coverage of treatments for high-cost diseases; and (2) in Colombia, the declaration of health as a fundamental right and a mechanism to explicitly exclude technologies that cannot be publicly funded. We interviewed key informants involved in one or more of the decisions and/or in the policy analysis and development process that contributed to the eventual decision. The data analysis involved a constant comparative approach and thematic analysis for each case study. RESULTS: From the 40 individuals who were invited, 28 key informants participated. A tension between 2 important values was identified for each decision (eg, solidarity vs. individualism for the AUGE/GES plan in Chile; human dignity vs. sustainability for the declaration of the right to health in Colombia). Policy-makers used values in the decisionmaking process to frame problems in meaningful ways, to guide policy development, as a pragmatic instrument to make decisions, and as a way to legitimize decisions. In Chile, values such as individualism and free choice were incorporated in decision-making because attaining private health insurance was seen as an indicator of improved personal economic status. In Colombia, human dignity was incorporated as the core value because the Constitutional Court asserted its importance in its use of judicial activism as a check on the power of the executive and legislative branches. CONCLUSION: There is an opportunity to open further exploration of the role of values in different health decisions, political sectors besides health, and even other jurisdictions.

Salud en movimiento: movimientos sociales y salud popular en La Plata, Argentina / Health on the move: social movements and popular health in La Plata, Argentina

Resumen El presente artículo indaga sobre la participación popular en salud en barrios de la periferia de La Plata (Argentina) en un contexto de vaciamiento de las políticas sociales de acuerdo a las normativas neoliberales que rigen con fuerza creciente en el país y en el continente. En este marco de crisis económica que afecta particularmente a la salud pública, los movimientos sociales se organizan para defenderla, al mismo tiempo que resisten el empobrecimiento cotidiano y construyen alternativas de salud popular y colectiva. El trabajo, sostenido en una investigación etnográfica, se propone reconstruir los modos en que los sujetos reconfiguran los modos de pensar la salud y la participación política en la vida cotidiana de los territorios a través de distintas tácticas y estrategias de cuidado y construcción político-comunitarias.

Abstract This article investigates the popular participation in health in neighborhoods of the periphery of La Plata (Argentina) in a context of emptying of social policies according to the neo-liberal regulations that govern with increasing force in the country and in the continent. In this framework of economic crisis that especially affects public health, social movements are organized to defend, while resisting daily impoverishment and building popular and collective health alternatives. The work, sustained in an ethnographic investigation, aims to reconstruct the ways in which the subjects reconfigure the ways of thinking about health and political participation in the daily life of the territories through different tactics and strategies of care and community-political construction.

Health on the move: social movements and popular health in La Plata, Argentina. / Salud en movimiento: movimientos sociales y salud popular en La Plata, Argentina.

This article investigates the popular participation in health in neighborhoods of the periphery of La Plata (Argentina) in a context of emptying of social policies according to the neo-liberal regulations that govern with increasing force in the country and in the continent. In this framework of economic crisis that especially affects public health, social movements are organized to defend, while resisting daily impoverishment and building popular and collective health alternatives. The work, sustained in an ethnographic investigation, aims to reconstruct the ways in which the subjects reconfigure the ways of thinking about health and political participation in the daily life of the territories through different tactics and strategies of care and community-political construction.

El presente artículo indaga sobre la participación popular en salud en barrios de la periferia de La Plata (Argentina) en un contexto de vaciamiento de las políticas sociales de acuerdo a las normativas neoliberales que rigen con fuerza creciente en el país y en el continente. En este marco de crisis económica que afecta particularmente a la salud pública, los movimientos sociales se organizan para defenderla, al mismo tiempo que resisten el empobrecimiento cotidiano y construyen alternativas de salud popular y colectiva. El trabajo, sostenido en una investigación etnográfica, se propone reconstruir los modos en que los sujetos reconfiguran los modos de pensar la salud y la participación política en la vida cotidiana de los territorios a través de distintas tácticas y estrategias de cuidado y construcción político-comunitarias.

[General characteristics of medical education in Mexico. A look from medical schools]. / Características generales de la educación médica en México. Una mirada desde las escuelas de medicina.

OBJECTIVE: To know the characteristics of medical education and identify its strengths and weaknesses. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A transversal and quantitative study of the characteristics of medical education in 29 medical schools in Mexico was carried out, between April and September 2017. Questionnaire with Likert scale was applied to explore context, regulation, structure, process, results and impact of medical education. Bivariate analysis was performed with a Chi square test and the significance level was equal to or less than 0.05. RESULTS: The political context obtained 64%, economical context 10% and mechanisms of regulation 31%. The educational structure was 61% and the social impact was 93%. CONCLUSIONS: Public policies, regulatory mechanisms and public investment must be strengthened to improve the quality of medical education.

OBJETIVO: Conocer las características de la educación médica e identificar sus fortalezas y debilidades. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio transversal y cuantitativo para conocer las características de la educación médica en 29 escuelas de medicina en México, entre abril y septiembre de 2017. Se utilizó un cuestionario con escala tipo Likert para explorar el contexto, la regulación, la estructura, el proceso, los resultados y el impacto de la educación médica. Se realizó un análisis bivariado con ji cuadrada y una significancia estadística de p igual o menor a 0.05. RESULTADOS: El contexto político obtuvo 64%, el contexto económico 10%, los mecanismos de regulación 31%, la estructura educativa 61% y el impacto social 93%. CONCLUSIONES: Se requiere fortalecer las políticas públicas, la regulación y la inversión pública, para mejorar la calidad de la educación médica.

Towards universal health coverage: a mixed-method study mapping the development of the faith-based non-profit sector in the Ghanaian health system.

BACKGROUND: Faith-based non-profit (FBNP) providers have had a long-standing role as non-state, non-profit providers in the Ghanaian health system. They have historically been considered to be important in addressing the inequitable geographical distribution of health services and towards the achievement of universal health coverage (UHC), but in changing contexts, this contribution is being questioned. However, any assessment of contribution is hampered by the lack of basic information about their comparative presence and coverage in the Ghanaian health system. In response, since the 1950s, there have been repeated calls for the 'mapping' of faith-based health assets. METHODS: A historically-focused mixed-methods study was conducted, collecting qualitative and quantitative data and combining geospatial mapping with varied documentary resources (secondary and primary, current and archival). Geospatial maps were developed, providing a visual representation of changes in the spatial footprint of the Ghanaian FBNP health sector. RESULTS: The geospatial maps show that FBNPs were originally located in rural remote areas of the country but that this service footprint has evolved over time, in line with changing social, political and economic contexts. CONCLUSION: FBNPs have had a long-standing role in the provision of health services and remain a valuable asset within national health systems in Ghana and sub-Saharan Africa more broadly. Collaboration between the public sector and such non-state providers, drawing on the comparative strengths and resources of FBNPs and focusing on whole system strengthening, is essential for the achievement of UHC.

Predictores selectivos en el sector público: validez predictiva y reacciones de los candidatos / Selection predictors in the public sector: predictive validity and candidate reactions

Esta investigación ha tenido como objetivo profundizar en el conocimiento sobre el funcionamiento de los procedimientos selectivos en el sector público. Para ello, a partir de los datos del concurso-oposición de 2010 para la selección de auxiliares administrativos en el Gobierno Vasco se estudiaron dos cuestiones: a) la validez predictiva de los predictores empleados y b) la justicia percibida por parte de los auxiliares con respecto al proceso selectivo y a las pruebas empleadas y su relación con el resultado en las mismas y el desempeño laboral. Los resultados muestran que la prueba de conocimientos es el mejor predictor del desempeño y que las reacciones de los candidatos presentan una correlación positiva con el desempeño laboral y con el resultado en el test de juicio situacional. Se comentan las limitaciones de la investigación así como las implicaciones prácticas de los resultados

The purpose of this research has been to deepen the knowledge about how selection procedures work in the public sector. To this aim two aspects were considered: a) the predictive validity of the predictors employed and b) the perceived justice of the hired workers regarding the selection process and the tests used and their relation with test performance and job performance. The results show that the job knowledge test is the best predictor of performance and that the reactions of the candidates present a positive correlation with job performance and with the situational judgment test results. The limitations of the research as well as the practical implications of the results are discussed

The power of integration: radiotherapy and global palliative care.

Radiotherapy (RT) is a powerful tool for the palliation of the symptoms of advanced cancer, although access to it is limited or absent in many low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). There are multiple factors contributing to this, including assumptions about the economic feasibility of RT in LMICs, the logical challenges of building capacity to deliver it in those regions, and the lack of political support to drive change of this kind. It is encouraging that the problem of RT access has begun to be included in the global discourse on cancer control and that palliative care and RT have been incorporated into national cancer control plans in some LMICs. Further, RT twinning programs involving high- and low-resource settings have been established to improve knowledge transfer and exchange. However, without large-scale action, the consequences of limited access to RT in LMICs will become dire. The number of new cancer cases around the world is expected to double by 2030, with twice as many deaths occurring in LMICs as in high-income countries (HICs). A sustained and coordinated effort involving research, education, and advocacy is required to engage global institutions, universities, health care providers, policymakers, and private industry in the urgent need to build RT capacity and delivery in LMICs.

Doctors as street-level bureaucrats in a rural hospital in South Africa.

INTRODUCTION: In the perspectives of implementation of policy, the top-down and bottom-up perspectives of policy-making dominate the discourse. However, service delivery and therefore the experience of the policy by the citizen ultimately depend on the civil servant at the front line to implement the policy. Lipsky named this street-level bureaucracy, which has been used to understand professionals working in the public sector throughout the world. The public sector in South Africa has undergone a number of changes in the transition to a democratic state, post 1994. This needs to be understood in public administration developments throughout the world. At the time of the study, the public sector was characterized by considerable inefficiencies and system failures as well as inequitable distribution of resources. The context of the study was a rural hospital serving a population of approximately 150 000. RESULTS: An insider-ethnography over a period of 13 months explored the challenges of being a professional within the public sector in a rural hospital in South Africa. Data collection included participant observation, field notes of events and meetings, and documentation review supplemented with in-depth interviews of doctors working at a rural hospital. Street-level bureaucracy was used as a framework to understand the challenges of being a professional and civil servant in the public sector. RESULTS: The context of a resource-constrained setting was seen as a major limitation to delivering a quality service. Yet considerable evidence pointed to doctors (both individually and collectively) being active in managing the services in the context and aiming to achieve optimal health service coverage for the population. In the daily routine of the work, doctors often advocated for patients and went beyond the narrow definitions of the guidelines. They compensated for failing systems, beyond a local interpretation of policy. However, doctors also at times used their discretion negatively, to avoid work or to contribute to the inefficiencies of healthcare delivery. CONCLUSIONS: While appearing to be in conflict, the merging of the roles of the health professional and the bureaucrat is required to be able to function effectively within the healthcare system. Being a doctor and being a civil servant are synergistic in daily work, and as a result it is difficult to neatly differentiate professional and civil servant roles in decision-making. It is in the discretion of both roles that considerable flexibility within the roles is possible. Such freedom to act is critical for being able to find local solutions and thereby improve healthcare services. The findings resonate strongly with studies from other parts of the world and offer a window into making sense of the local decision making of doctors. Street-level bureaucracy remains an important lens to view the work of healthcare professionals in the public sector. In the tension between the top-down policy-making and the bottom-up pressure, street-level bureaucracy acts as an important terrain for improving the implementation of services and therefore advocacy and health system improvement.

Accountable Care Organizations in California: Market Forces at Work?

Accountable care organizations (ACOs), one of the most recent and promising health care delivery innovations, encourage care coordination among providers. While ACOs hold promise for decreasing costs by reducing unnecessary procedures, improving resource use as a result of economies of scale and scope, ACOs also raise concerns about provider market power. This study examines the market-level competition factors that are associated with ACO participation and the number of ACOs. Using data from California, we find that higher levels of preexisting managed care leads to higher ACO entry and enrollment growth, while hospital concentration leads to fewer ACOs and lower enrollment. We find interesting results for physician market power - markets with concentrated physician markets have a smaller share of individuals in commercial ACOs but a larger number of commercial ACO organizations. This finding implies smaller ACOs in these markets.

[Overbooking in an outpatient healthcare facility in the Brazilian Unified National Health System]. / Técnica de overbooking no atendimento público ambulatorial em uma unidade do Sistema Único de Saúde.

Management issues like resource optimization, cost cuts, quality gains, and improvements in care have become increasingly important and are essential to the sustainability of healthcare organizations. This study analyzed the efficiency of public outpatient care, where the high rate of patient no-show leads to low use of resources, while paradoxically the demand for medical care clearly exceeds the supply. A quantitative and descriptive approach analyzed the use of "overbooking" to reduce the effects of patient no-show in a public outpatient clinic. Using statistical and mathematical methods and based on patient and appointment data collected from a survey, an interesting comparison was made between levels of overbooking and the respective resource utilization rates and service levels for each scenario. The findings point to important gains in efficiency, thus demonstrating the potential of increasing the number of services in the same asset base.

Técnica de overbooking no atendimento público ambulatorial em uma unidade do Sistema Único de Saúde / Overbooking in an outpatient healthcare facility in the Brazilian Unified National Health System / Práctica de overbooking en la atención ambulatoria pública dentro de una unidad del Sistema Único de Salud

Aspectos como otimização de recursos, redução de custos, ganhos de qualidade e melhoria no atendimento receberam importância e são fundamentais para a sustentabilidade das organizações. Este trabalho analisa a eficiência no atendimento público ambulatorial, onde a alta taxa de absenteísmo por parte dos usuários implica baixa utilização de recursos, enquanto que, paradoxalmente, a demanda por atendimento médico é nitidamente superior à oferta. A abordagem, quantitativa e de caráter descritivo, analisa a utilização da técnica de overbooking para reduzir os efeitos do absenteísmo em um ambulatório da rede pública. Mediante o uso de métodos estatísticos e matemáticos, com base em dados de pacientes e agendamentos coletados em pesquisa, desenhou-se um interessante comparativo entre níveis de overbooking e respectivas taxas de utilização de recursos e níveis de serviço para cada cenário analisado. Os resultados obtidos apontam ganhos expressivos de eficiência, demonstrando o potencial de aumento do número de atendimentos para uma mesma base de ativos.

Management issues like resource optimization, cost cuts, quality gains, and improvements in care have become increasingly important and are essential to the sustainability of healthcare organizations. This study analyzed the efficiency of public outpatient care, where the high rate of patient no-show leads to low use of resources, while paradoxically the demand for medical care clearly exceeds the supply. A quantitative and descriptive approach analyzed the use of “overbooking” to reduce the effects of patient no-show in a public outpatient clinic. Using statistical and mathematical methods and based on patient and appointment data collected from a survey, an interesting comparison was made between levels of overbooking and the respective resource utilization rates and service levels for each scenario. The findings point to important gains in efficiency, thus demonstrating the potential of increasing the number of services in the same asset base.

Aspectos de gestión, tales como la optimización de recursos, reducción de costes, mejora de la calidad y servicio han adquirido cada vez más importancia y son fundamentales para mantener organizaciones sosteniblemente. Esta investigación analiza la eficiencia del servicio médico ambulatorio público, donde no se presenta una alta tasa de pacientes, lo que lleva a una baja utilización de los recursos existentes, mientras que, paradójicamente, la demanda de servicios médicos es claramente superior a su disponibilidad. El enfoque cuantitativo y descriptivo analiza la utilización de un exceso de reservas técnicas, con el fin de reducir el efecto de pacientes que no se dirigen, finalmente, a un servicio médico público ambulatorio. Se aplicaron métodos estadísticos y matemáticos en la información proporcionada por pacientes y en la recogida de información de la base de datos de consultas, que dieron lugar a una interesante comparación entre los niveles de exceso de reservas y su tasa de utilización, respecto a los recursos y niveles de servicio dentro de cada uno de los escenarios analizados. Los resultados obtenidos muestran un aumento significativo en la eficiencia.

Maternal health-seeking behavior: the role of financing and organization of health services in Ghana.

This paper examines how organization and financing of maternal health services influence health-seeking behavior in Bosomtwe district, Ghana. It contributes in furthering the discussions on maternal health-seeking behavior and health outcomes from a health system perspective in sub-Saharan Africa. From a health system standpoint, the paper first presents the resources, organization and financing of maternal health service in Ghana, and later uses case study examples to explain how Ghana's health system has shaped maternal health-seeking behavior of women in the district. The paper employs a qualitative case study technique to build a complex and holistic picture, and report detailed views of the women in their natural setting. A purposeful sampling technique is applied to select 16 women in the district for this study. Through face-to-face interviews and group discussions with the selected women, comprehensive and in-depth information on health- seeking behavior and health outcomes are elicited for the analysis. The study highlights that characteristics embedded in decentralization and provision of free maternal health care influence health-seeking behavior. Particularly, the use of antenatal care has increased after the delivery exemption policy in Ghana. Interestingly, the study also reveals certain social structures, which influence women's attitude towards their decisions and choices of health facilities.

Associations and foundations in the field of health care and their role in the health system of Poland.

The article presents data on associations and foundations active in health care field in Poland, on the basis of a review of research done by Klon/Jawor Association and the Central Statistical Office. The article also applies to the issue of cooperation between NGOs and governmental adminstration in the health area and identifies lacking information that is necessary for better planning of national health policy. In Poland there are about three thousand associations and foundations whose main focus is the health care. In 2010, they accounted for about 7% of all non-governmental organizations. Results of representative nationwide surveys from 2008 and 2010 indicate that the NGO's active in the field of health care have, in most cases, legal form of associations. Almost half of the organizations declared national or international scope of action. Headquarters of most organizations were mainly in the cities, and only, one in twenty in the village. Most organizations were located in the mazowieckie province and a significant fraction of them was in Warsaw itself. Organizations were stood out by a relatively large number of personnel on the background of the entire NGO sector. Half of the organizations employed paid workers, the majority also collaborated with volunteers who were not members of the organization. More than a third of organizations dealt with the rehabilitation, therapy and long-term care, and about 1/3 dealt with prevention, health promotion and education, and blood donations. World Health Organization indicates the need for systematic collection of data about the role of the nongovernmental sector in health. In Poland, legal regulations require the public institutions and organizations to cooperate with NGOs to achieve health objectives. In spite of relevant data on NGOs in the field of health care in Poland, the necessary information to assess their potential are still lacking. Recognition of the capacity and limitations ofNGOs could enable better planning of national health policy.

The role of non-governmental organizations in the social and the health system.

The article presents the definitions, objectives, fields and tasks of non-governmental organizations in social life, health system and health policy. In addition, the article addresses the issue of effectiveness and quality of NGOs' activity. The term "NGOs" (Non-governmental Organizations) includes different categories of entities that operate not to obtain financial gain, and also do not belong to the government sector. Non-governmental Organizations' fields of activity were described in the International Classification of Non-Profit Organizations (ICNPO). NGOs are an integral part of a democratic society. Sociological sciences emphasize their importance in enhancing social integration, implementation of the principle of subsidiarity, building civil society, social dialogue and participatory democracy. The main tasks of NGOs in the health system are providing services and health advocacy. Provision of services includes medical, social and psychological services as well as, integration activities, care and nursing, material and financial support, educational and information services and training. Health advocacy is a combination of individual and social actions designed to gain political commitment, policy support, social acceptance and systems support for a particular health goal or program. An important task carried out by NGOs is participation in the formation of health policy. The increasing role of NGOs in providing social services and the participation in political processes, result in the need to confirm the validity and credibility of their operation. One of the ways could be to introduce the mechanisms to assess quality and efficiency, such as registration as a part of a legal system, self-regulatory activities (card rules, codes of ethics), certification, participation in networks, monitoring and audit.

[Metropolitan and regional health planning: dilemmas of the Pact for Health in the Baixada Santista Metropolitan Area, São Paulo State, Brazil]. / Metrópole e região: dilemas da pactuação da saúde. O caso da Região Metropolitana da Baixada Santista, São Paulo, Brasil.

This paper focuses on the relationship between metropolitan and regional health planning based on the processes of regionalization and the Pact for Health in the Baixada Santista Metropolitan Area, São Paulo State, Brazil. The method used was a case study in two stages, namely during initial implementation of the Pact for Health (2007) and the Regional Administration Committees (CGR) and in 2010. Municipal and regional health systems managers and the director of the Metropolitan Agency were interviewed, and records were analyzed from ten years of meetings of the Regional Inter-Administration Committee and the Regional Development Council. Four issues emerged: financing and infrastructure; health services utilization; inefficiency of the Regional Health Administration's instruments and decision-making levels; and the relationship between different levels in the Administration. Metropolitan health management remained as an underlying issue, appearing only incidentally or tangentially to regional management. Despite some limitations, the CGR has been legitimized as a space for regional health management.

Metrópole e região: dilemas da pactuação da saúde. O caso da Região Metropolitana da Baixada Santista, São Paulo, Brasil / Metropolitan and regional health planning: dilemmas of the Pact for Health in the Baixada Santista Metropolitan Area, São Paulo State, Brazil

O trabalho aborda aspectos da relação entre metropolização e regionalização em saúde, tendo por base os processos de regionalização e pactuação na Região Metropolitana da Baixada Santista, São Paulo, Brasil. Trata-se de estudo de caso, realizado em dois momentos: o primeiro, no início da implementação do Pacto pela Saúde (2007) e dos Colegiados de Gestão Regional (CGR), e o segundo, em 2010. Foram entrevistados gestores municipais e regionais do SUS e a direção da Agência Metropolitana. Também foram analisadas atas de dez anos de reuniões da Comissão Intergestora Regional e do Conselho de Desenvolvimento da Baixada Santista. Emergiram quatro grandes temas: financiamento e infraestrutura; utilização de serviços; ineficiência das instâncias e instrumentos de gestão; relação entre os níveis de gestão. Permaneceu latente a questão da metropolização, que aparece de forma incipiente ou tangencial à gestão regional. Avalia-se que apesar de algumas limitações, o CGR vem se legitimando como espaço de gestão regional.

This paper focuses on the relationship between metropolitan and regional health planning based on the processes of regionalization and the Pact for Health in the Baixada Santista Metropolitan Area, São Paulo State, Brazil. The method used was a case study in two stages, namely during initial implementation of the Pact for Health (2007) and the Regional Administration Committees (CGR) and in 2010. Municipal and regional health systems managers and the director of the Metropolitan Agency were interviewed, and records were analyzed from ten years of meetings of the Regional Inter-Administration Committee and the Regional Development Council. Four issues emerged: financing and infrastructure; health services utilization; inefficiency of the Regional Health Administration's instruments and decision-making levels; and the relationship between different levels in the Administration. Metropolitan health management remained as an underlying issue, appearing only incidentally or tangentially to regional management. Despite some limitations, the CGR has been legitimized as a space for regional health management.