[The territorial nature of the Primary Health Care of Brazil's Unified Health System (SUS): the proliferation of community medical clinics in the Metropolitan Region of Belém, State of Pará, Brazil]. / A territorialidade da Atenção Básica à Saúde do SUS: a difusão das clínicas médicas populares na Região Metropolitana de Belém, Pará, Brasil.

The scope of this article is an analysis of the proliferation of community medical clinics in the municipalities that comprise the Metropolitan Region of Belem. An investigation was conducted into the performance of the primary health care network of Brazil's Unified Health System, with a view to getting a better understanding of the reasons for, and origins of, the proactive stance of the community health sector. The discussion is based on the review of primary and secondary data, obtained via fieldwork in 119 community clinics in the Metropolitan Region of Belem, and information from Brazil's Unified Health System data center. It was revealed that the community health clinic sector has benefited extensively in recent years from the intensification of underfunding of Brazil's Unified Health System, especially the primary health care network, which is undergoing a process of fragmentation. This is directly responsible for the reduction and disruption of multiprofessional primary health care teams, in addition to the losses suffered in the supplementary health sector. The community clinics adopt an spontaneous and contradictory care model created by the private sector to meet the repressed demand of Brazil's Unified Health System.

O artigo apresenta uma análise sobre a difusão das clínicas médicas populares nos municípios que compõem a Região Metropolitana de Belém (RMB). Com o propósito de compreender as razões e as origens do avanço do setor de saúde popular, promoveu-se uma investigação sobre a atuação da rede de atenção básica à saúde (ABS) do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS). A discussão se fundamenta na revisão de dados primários e secundários, captados via trabalho de campo nas 119 clínicas populares da RMB e via informações do DATASUS. Constatou-se que o setor das clínicas de saúde popular foi beneficiado amplamente nos últimos anos, mediante a intensificação do subfinanciamento do SUS, em particular da rede de ABS, que passa por um processo de fragmentação, responsáveis pela redução e pela desarticulação das equipes multiprofissionais de ABS, além das perdas apresentadas no setor de saúde suplementar. As clínicas populares seguem um modelo assistencial inacabado e contraditório, criado pela própria iniciativa privada para o preenchimento da demanda reprimida do SUS em razão de o acesso a essas instituições não garantir uma assistência universal e gratuita ou assegurar um tratamento continuo, motivo pelo qual uma ampla parcela destes usuários é devolvida ao SUS.

Private healthcare sector spine surgery: patient and surgeon profiles from a large open medical scheme in South Africa.

Background It is generally understood that the profile of spine surgery varies by setting, based on factors such as the age profile of the population, the economic context and access to healthcare. Relatively little is known about the profile of spine surgery in South Africa, although one previous report from the public healthcare sector suggested a high burden of trauma and infection-related surgery. To our knowledge, there has been no formal investigation in the private sector. A holistic understanding of spine surgery within our setting may be beneficial for applications such as resource allocation and informing the training needs of future specialists.   Objectives To provide insight into spinal surgery in the South African private healthcare sector by describing spine surgery characteristics within a large open medical scheme, including both patient and surgeon profiles.   Methods This retrospective review included adult inpatient spine surgeries funded by the largest open medical scheme in South Africa between 2008 and 2017. An anonymized dataset extracted from the scheme records included patient demographics, ICD-10 codes, procedure codes and surgeon specialization. Descriptive patient and surgery data were presented. Furthermore, the association between patient and surgery factors and surgeon specialization was investigated using univariate and multivariate analyses.   Results A total of 49,576 index spine surgeries were included. The largest proportion of surgeries involved members 40-59 years old (n=23,543, 48%), approximately half involved female members (n=25,293, 51%) and most were performed by neurosurgeons (n=35,439, 72%). At least 37,755 (76%) surgeries were for degenerative pathology, 2,100 (4%) for trauma and 242 (0.5%) for infection. Adjusted risk ratios (aRR) significantly associated with orthopaedic surgeon specialization included cervical spine region aRR = 0.49 (95% C.I. 0.39-0.61), trauma aRR = 1.50 (95% C.I. 1.20-1.88), deformity aRR = 1.77 (95% C.I. 1.33-2.35) and blood transfusion aRR = 1.46 (95% C.I. 1.12-1.91).   Conclusion Spine surgery in South Africa's largest open medical scheme was dominated by surgery for degenerative pathology in older adults and was performed largely by neurosurgeons. This constituted a stark contrast to a previous report from the public sector and highlighted a mismatch between exposure during public sector registrar training and private practice post-specialization. The findings support the need for private-public collaboration as well as the importance of spine fellowships for all specialists intending to practice spine surgery.

Why do consumers choose private over public health services? Reflective accounts of health providers in Vietnam.

BACKGROUND: In Vietnam and many developing countries, private healthcare is increasingly being leveraged by governments to complement public services and increase health service access and utilisation. Extensive understanding of patterns of utilisation of private over public health services, and the rationale for such consumer decisions, is important to ensure and promote safe, affordable and patient-centred care in the two sectors. Few studies within the Southeast Asian Region have explored how private and public providers interact (via social networks, marketing, and direct contact) with consumers to affect their service choices. This study investigates providers' views on social factors associated with the use of private over public health services in Vietnam. METHOD: A thematic analysis was undertaken of 30 semi-structured interviews with experienced health system stakeholders from the Vietnam national assembly, government ministries, private health associations, health economic association, as well as public and private hospitals and clinics. RESULTS: Multiple social factors were found to influence the choice of private over public services, including word-of-mouth, the patient-doctor relationship and relationships between healthcare providers, healthcare staff attitudes and behaviour, and marketing. While private providers maximise their use of these social factors, most public providers seem to ignore or show only limited interest in using marketing and other forms of social interaction to improve services to meet patients' needs, especially those needs beyond strictly medical intervention. However, private providers faced their own particular challenges related to over-advertisement, over-servicing, excessive focus on patients' demands rather than medical needs, as well as the significant technical requirements for quality and safety. CONCLUSIONS: This study has important implications for policy and practice in Vietnam. First, public providers must embrace social interaction with consumers as an effective strategy to improve their service quality. Second, appropriate regulations of private providers are required to protect patients from unnecessary treatments, costs and potential harm. Finally, the insights from this study have direct relevance to many developing countries facing a similar challenge of appropriately managing the growth of the private health sector.

Building the Commitment of the Private Sector and Leveraging Effective Partnerships to Sustain Food Fortification.

The private sector is a critical partner in achieving the universally adopted Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)-UNDP 2022. As part of a national strategy to address malnutrition (SDG2), Large-Scale Food Fortification of commonly consumed staple foods and condiments with vitamins and minerals is a proven intervention that requires the concerted engagement of multiple actors in a country's agri-food and public health ecosystems. Lessons from TechnoServe's Strengthening African Processors of Fortified Foods (SAPFF) Program, implemented from 2016 to 2022 in Kenya, Nigeria, and Tanzania with support from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, provide essential learnings about how to effectively engage, motivate, and improve the food fortification performance of the industry in compliance with national standards, through capacity building, responsive technical assistance, and multistakeholder engagement that builds trust and accountability of industry in the fight against malnutrition.

What is the out-of-pocket expenditure on medicines in India? An empirical assessment using a novel methodology.

The share of expenditure on medicines as part of the total out-of-pocket (OOP) expenditure on healthcare services has been reported to be much higher in India than in other countries. This study was conducted to ascertain the extent of this share of medicine expenditure using a novel methodology. OOP expenditure data were collected through exit interviews with 5252 out-patient department patients in three states of India. Follow-up interviews were conducted after Days 1 and 15 of the baseline to identify any additional expenditure incurred. In addition, medicine prescription data were collected from the patients through prescription audits. Self-reported expenditure on medicines was compared with the amount imputed using local market prices based on prescription data. The results were also compared with the mean expenditure on medicines per spell of ailment among non-hospitalized cases from the National Sample Survey (NSS) 75th round for the corresponding states and districts, which is based on household survey methodology. The share of medicines in OOP expenditure did not change significantly for organized private hospitals using the patient-reported vs imputation-based methods (30.74-29.61%). Large reductions were observed for single-doctor clinics, especially in the case of 'Ayurvedic' (64.51-36.51%) and homeopathic (57.53-42.74%) practitioners. After adjustment for socio-demographic factors and types of ailments, we found that household data collection as per NSS methodology leads to an increase of 25% and 26% in the reported share of medicines for public- and private-sector out-patient consultations respectively, as compared with facility-based exit interviews with the imputation of expenditure for medicines as per actual quantity and price data. The nature of healthcare transactions at single-doctor clinics in rural India leads to an over-reporting of expenditure on medicines by patients. While household surveys are valid to provide total expenditure, these are less likely to correctly estimate the share of medicine expenditure.

The quality of primary care performance in private sector facilities in Nairobi, Kenya: a cross-sectional descriptive survey.

BACKGROUND: Integrated health services with an emphasis on primary care are needed for effective primary health care and achievement of universal health coverage. The key elements of high quality primary care are first-contact access, continuity, comprehensiveness, coordination, and person-centredness. In Kenya, there is paucity of information on the performance of these key elements and such information is needed to improve service delivery. Therefore, the study aimed to evaluate the quality of primary care performance in private sector facilities in Nairobi, Kenya. METHODS: A cross-sectional descriptive study using an adapted Primary Care Assessment Tool for the Kenyan context and surveyed 412 systematically sampled primary care users, from 13 PC clinics. Data were analysed to measure 11 domains of primary care performance and two aggregated primary care scores using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences. RESULTS: Mean primary care score was 2.64 (SD=0.23) and the mean expanded primary care score was 2.68 (SD=0.19), implying an overall low performance. The domains of first contact-utilisation, coordination (information system), family-centredness and cultural competence had mean scores of >3.0 (acceptable to good performance). The domains of first contact-access, coordination, comprehensiveness (provided and available), ongoing care and community-orientation had mean scores of < 3.0 (poor performance). Older respondents (p=0.05) and those with higher affiliation to the clinics (p=0.01) were more likely to rate primary care as acceptable to good. CONCLUSION: These primary care clinics in Nairobi showed gaps in performance. Performance was rated as acceptable-to-good for first-contact utilisation, the information systems, family-centredness and cultural competence. However, patients rated low performance related to first-contact access, ongoing care, coordination of care, comprehensiveness of services, community orientation and availability of a complete primary health care team. Performance could be improved by deploying family physicians, increasing the scope of practice to become more comprehensive, incentivising use of these PC clinics rather than the tertiary hospital, improving access after-hours and marketing the use of the clinics to the practice population.

Tuberculosis and Diabetes in India: Stakeholder Perspectives on Health System Challenges and Opportunities for Integrated Care.

BACKGROUND: India has a dual burden of tuberculosis (TB) and diabetes mellitus (DM). Integrated care for TB/DM is still in the early phase in the country and can be considerably enhanced by understanding and addressing the challenges identified from stakeholders' perspectives. This study explored the challenges and opportunities at individual, health system and policy level for integrated care of TB/DM comorbidities in India. METHODS: We used an outlier case study approach and conducted stakeholder interviews and focus group discussions with relevant program personnel including field staff and program managers of TB and DM control programs as well as officials of partners in Indian states, Kerala and Bihar. RESULTS: The integrated management requires strengthening the laboratory diagnosis and drug management components of the two individual programs for TB and DM. Focused training and sensitization of healthcare workers in public and private sector across all levels is essential. A district level management unit that coordinates the two vertical programs with a horizontal integration at the primary care level is the way forward. Substantial improvement in data infrastructure is essential to improve decision-making process. CONCLUSION: Bi-directional screening and management of TB/DM comorbidities in India requires substantial investment in human resources, infrastructure, drug availability, and data infrastructure.

Antimicrobial resistance in Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Mycoplasma genitalium isolates from the private healthcare sector in South Africa: A pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Reports have emerged globally of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Mycoplasma genitalium infections. In South Africa (SA), there are substantial differences between private and public healthcare with regard to antimicrobial drug prescribing practice, which could affect AMR patterns of private and public healthcare patients. OBJECTIVES: To perform a pilot study to determine the frequency of AMR of N. gonorrhoeae and M. genitalium in patients accessing SA's private healthcare sector. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, N. gonorrhoeae-positive cultures and M. genitalium DNA samples were collected from a private healthcare reference laboratory from August 2018 to August 2019. In N. gonorrhoeae-positive cultures, antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed, followed by N. gonorrhoeae multiantigen sequence typing (NG-MAST) to determine genetic relatedness of the isolates. To determine macrolide and fluoroquinolone resistance rates, M. genitalium-positive samples were analysed by sequencing the 23S rRNA, gyrA and parC genes. RESULTS: Twenty-one N. gonorrhoeae- and 27 M. genitalium-positive specimens were included in this analysis. High rates of resistance were detected among gonococcal isolates, with 90% resistance to tetracycline, 86% to penicillin and 62% to ciprofloxacin, but no resistance to azithromycin, cefixime and ceftriaxone. NG-MAST revealed genetically diverse isolates with 83% novel NG-MAST sequence types. Macrolide and fluoroquinolone resistance-associated mutations were detected in 18.5% (n=5/27) and 7.4% (n=2/27) of M. genitalium strains, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: We observed high frequencies of ciprofloxacin, penicillin and tetracycline resistance in N. gonorrhoeae and macrolide resistance-associated mutations in M. genitalium in private healthcare sector patients in SA. This finding highlights the need to use diagnostics for sexually transmitted infections and to include the private healthcare sector in antimicrobial surveillance and stewardship programmes.

Health Care for Our Nation's Veterans: A Policy Paper From the American College of Physicians.

The Veterans Health Administration (VHA) is the United States' largest integrated health care delivery system, serving over 9 million enrollees at nearly 1300 health care facilities. In addition to providing health care to the nation's military veterans, the VHA has a research and development program, trains thousands of medical residents and other health care professionals, and conducts emergency preparedness and response activities. The VHA has been celebrated for delivering high-quality care to veterans, early adoption of electronic medical records, and high patient satisfaction. However, the system faces challenges, including implementation of an expanded community care program, modernization of its electronic medical records system, and providing care to a population with complex needs. The position paper offers policy recommendations on VHA funding, the community care program, medical and health care professions training, and research and development.

Análisis de los sistemas de salud como sistemas políticos / Analysis of health systems as political systems

La literatura técnica suele presentar los Sistemas de Salud (SS) como conjuntos de recursos médicos destinados a atender enfermedades. Un análisis más amplio del tema permite caracterizar los SS como la expresión de sistemas políticos que surgen y cambian en contextos históricos diferentes, al impulso de las condiciones e intereses predominantes. Los sistemas políticos son los mismos sistemas sociales cuando los valoramos desde la perspectiva de las relaciones de poder que se establecen entre sus integrantes. Desde esta perspectiva los SS, sus agentes, discursos y dispositivos, se revelan como componentes de sistemas políticos que determinan, bajo las apariencias el tipo de gestión que se aplica a la comprensión y cuidado de la salud, y configuran "modelos de respuesta social". Este documento, describe los SS como sistemas políticos, con base en las características de la respuesta social preponderante. Se describen cinco tipologías que pueden coexistir tanto de forma sinérgica como contradictoria reflejando las condiciones e intereses predominantes en el grupo: sistemas populares, de beneficencia, de seguridad social, estatales, y privados. Al final se propone que el análisis de los aspectos formales y técnicos es por sí mismo insuficiente para explicar e intervenir la dinámica de los SS.

Technical literature usually presents Health Systems (HS) as sets of medical resources aimed at treating diseases. A broader analysis of the subject allows us to characterize HS as the expression of political systems, which arise and change in different historical contexts, driven by prevailing conditions and interests. Political systems are the same social systems when we value them from the perspective of the power relations established among their members. From this perspective, HS, their agents, discourses, and devices, are revealed as components of political systems that determine, under appearances, the type of management that people applied to understand and care for their health, and configure "models of social response." In this document, the analysis of HS is based on the characteristics of the prevailing social response. We describe five typologies that can coexist, both synergistically and contradictory, reflecting the prevailing conditions and interests in the group: popular, charity, social security, state, and private systems. In the end, it is proposed that the analysis of the formal and technical aspects is by itself insufficient to explain HS and intervene in their dynamics

The utilisation of public and private health care among Australian women with diabetes: Findings from the 45 and Up Study.

AIM: To describe the prevalence of health care utilisation and out-of-pocket expenditure associated with the management of diabetes among Australian women aged 45 years and older. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey design. METHODS: The questionnaire was administered to 392 women (a cohort of the 45 and Up Study) reporting a diagnosis of diabetes between August and November 2016. It asked about the use of conventional medicine, complementary medicine (CM) and self-prescribed treatments for diabetes and associated out-of-pocket spending. RESULTS: Most women (88.3%; n = 346) consulted at least one health care practitioner in the previous 12 months for their diabetes; 84.6% (n = 332) consulted a doctor, 44.4% (n = 174) consulted an allied health practitioner, and 20.4% (n = 80) consulted a CM practitioner. On average, the combined annual out-of-pocket health care expenditure was AU$492.6 per woman, which extrapolated to approximately AU$252 million per annum. Of this total figure, approximately AU$70 million was spent on CM per annum. CONCLUSIONS: Women with diabetes use a diverse range of health services and incur significant out-of-pocket expense to manage their health. The degree to which the health care services women received were coordinated, or addressed their needs and preferences, warrants further exploration. Limitations of this study include the use of self-report and inability to generalise findings to other populations.

Open versus Endovascular Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm Repair in the Australian Private Sector Over Twenty Years.

PURPOSE: Over the past two decades, the proliferation of endovascular surgery has changed the approach to abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) repair. In Australia, close to two-thirds of surgical procedures are performed in the private healthcare system. We aimed to describe the trends in AAA repair in the Australian private sector throughout the early 21st century. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Medicare Benefits Schedule (MBS) statistics were accessed to determine the number of infrarenal open AAA repair (OAR) and endovascular AAA repair (EVAR) procedures performed between January 2000 and December 2019. Population data were extracted from the Australian Bureau of Statistics and used to calculate incidence per 100,000 population. Further analysis was performed according to age, gender, and state. RESULTS: During the study period, 13,193 (67.0%) EVARs and 6504 (33.0%) OARs were performed in the Australian private sector. OARs fell from 70.5% (n=567) of AAA repairs in 2000 to 15.7% (n=237) in 2019, while EVARs rose from 29.5% (n=151) to 84.3% (n=808). The frequency of EVAR surpassed OAR in 2004. The overall incidence of AAA repair varied minimally over the time period (range: 4.9-6.5 per 100,000 adults per year). AAA repair was more common in males than females (9.7 vs 1.7 per 100,000 population) and more common in older age groups. There was a 4-fold increase in EVAR among males older than 85 years (12.8-57.4 per 100,000 population), the largest rise of any group. The overall EVAR:OAR ratio increased from 0.4 to 5.4. There were considerable state-based discrepancies. CONCLUSION: The landscape of AAA repair in Australian private sector has drastically changed with a clear preference toward EVAR. EVAR saw increased use across all genders, age groups and states, despite stable rates of AAA surgery. Further research is necessary to compare our findings to national trends in the Australian public sector.

The surface and the back of late Joseon medicine - Centered on medical knowledge system.

Many medical books of the late Joseon Dynasty were based on the medical knowledge of Donguibogam. For this reason, most of the studies have explained the medicine of the late Joseon Dynasty focusing on Donguibogam. However, the appearance of medicine in the late Joseon Dynasty is more complex than that. Although the "treatment knowledge" of Donguibogam had a huge impact in the late Joseon Dynasty, the "medical thought" of Donguibogam was not easily established. This is confirmed through the knowledge system of medical books in the late Joseon Dynasty. Jejungsinpyeon, published by the government in the late Joseon Dynasty, disassembled the contents of Dongibogam and rearranged it into a knowledge system of Uihagibmun. Injeji, which was made in the private sector, followed the same method. They tried to maintain part of the knowledge system of Donguibogam. Nevertheless, the framework of perception that extends from "human" to "disease," the central idea of Donguibogam, was not maintained. This shows that there was a considerable amount of respect for the medicine of Ming Dynasty in the late Joseon Dynasty. Therefore, for a more in-depth understanding of medicine in the late Joseon Dynasty, it is necessary to examine in more detail the influences of other medical books such as Uihagibmun, Bonchogangmok, and Gyeongakjeonseo in addition to Donguibogam. This should be understood as a process in which various medical knowledge and systems compete.

Midwives providing maternal health services to poor women in the private sector: is it a financially feasible model?

Governments in many low- and middle-income countries have increasingly turned to the private sector to address the gap in skilled birth attendance in rural areas. They draw on limited, but emerging evidence that the poor also seek private healthcare services. A question not addressed in this policy and strategy is: Can poor women pay the fees required for private-sector maternity care providers to financially sustain their practices? This article examined the financial viability of private-sector midwifery practices established to provide skilled birth services to Afghan refugee women in Baluchistan, Pakistan. An international non-governmental organization established 45 midwifery practices as part of a poverty alleviation project aimed at providing market-based solutions for female poverty. A retrospective micro-cost analysis was conducted on a sample of 11 practices. In-depth interviews were conducted with 33 stakeholders to explore the midwives' experiences of operating private practices, and the facilitators and barriers they experienced. The single midwife-practices saw a mean of 8.7 ANC patients (range 1-19), attended 2.9 births (range 0-10) and provided care to 1.6 postnatal patients (range 0-7). The average net income of the 11 practices in May 2014 was US$81, but the median was just US$12. To contextualize these incomes, the midwives earned, on average, 25% of Pakistan's minimum monthly living wage. The financial analysis showed only 3 out of 11 sampled practices could be considered financially viable. The qualitative data revealed that even in practices with reasonable client volumes, the patients' inability to pay was the critical factor in the midwife practices' low net incomes. The research provides empirical evidence of a potential pitfall of private funding models in resource-poor settings where providers rely on impoverished clients to pay user-fees. Such financial models essentially shift the government's responsibility to provide safe childbirth services onto providers who can least afford to offer such care.

Addressing Care Continuity and Quality Challenges in the Management of Hypertension: Case Study of the Private Health Care Sector in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Hypertension is a major risk factor of cardiovascular disease and a leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally. In Kenya, the rise of hypertension strains an already stretched health care system that has traditionally focused on the management of infectious diseases. Health care provision in this country remains fragmented, and little is known about the role of health information technology in care coordination. Furthermore, there is a dearth of literature on the experiences, challenges, and solutions for improving the management of hypertension and other noncommunicable diseases in the Kenyan private health care sector. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to assess stakeholders' perspectives on the challenges associated with the management of hypertension in the Kenyan private health care sector and to derive recommendations for the design and functionality of a digital health solution for addressing the care continuity and quality challenges in the management of hypertension. METHODS: We conducted a qualitative case study. We collected data using in-depth interviews with 18 care providers and 8 business leads, and direct observations at 18 private health care institutions in Nairobi, Kenya. We analyzed the data thematically to identify the key challenges and recommendations for technology-enabled solutions to support the management of hypertension in the Kenyan private health sector. We subsequently used the generated insights to derive and describe the design and range of functions of a digital health wallet platform for enabling care quality and continuity. RESULTS: The management of hypertension in the Kenyan private health care sector is characterized by challenges such as high cost of care, limited health care literacy, lack of self-management support, ineffective referral systems, inadequate care provider training, and inadequate regulation. Care providers lack the tools needed to understand their patients' care histories and effectively coordinate efforts to deliver high-quality hypertension care. The proposed digital health platform was designed to support hypertension care coordination and continuity through clinical workflow orchestration, decision support, and patient-mediated data sharing with privacy preservation, auditability, and trust enabled by blockchain technology. CONCLUSIONS: The Kenyan private health care sector faces key challenges that require significant policy, organizational, and infrastructural changes to ensure care quality and continuity in the management of hypertension. Digital health data interoperability solutions are needed to improve hypertension care coordination in the sector. Additional studies should investigate how patients can control the sharing of their data while ensuring that care providers have a holistic view of the patient during any encounter.

Association of medicaid expansion of the Affordable Care Act with the stage at diagnosis and treatment of papillary thyroid cancer: A difference-in-differences analysis.

BACKGROUND: The Affordable Care Act's (ACA) Medicaid expansion has increased insurance coverage and improved various cancer outcomes. Its impact in papillary thyroid cancer (PTC) remains unclear. METHODS: Non-elderly patients (40-64 years-old) with PTC living in low-income areas either in a 2014 expansion, or a non-expansion state were identified from the National Cancer Database between 2010 and 2016. Insurance coverage, stage at diagnosis, and RAI administration were analyzed using a difference-in-differences analysis. RESULTS: 10,644 patients were included. Compared with non-expansion states, the percentage of uninsured patients (adjusted-DD -2.6% [95%-CI -4.3to-0.8%],p = 0.004) and patients with private insurance decreased, and those with Medicaid coverage increased (adjusted-DD 9.7% [95%-CI 6.9-12.5%],p < 0.001) in expansion states after ACA implementation. The percentage of patients with pT1 did not differ between expansion and non-expansion states; neither did the use of RAI. CONCLUSIONS: Medicaid expansion has resulted in a smaller uninsured population in PTC patients, but without earlier disease presentation nor change in RAI treatment.

Understanding the structure of a country's health service providers for defence health engagement.

There are a variety of structural and systems frameworks for describing the building blocks of country's public health and health systems. In this paper, we propose a conceptual framework for a holistic view of a country's health service providers in order to inform the plan for Defence Health Engagement activities with partner countries. This includes all potential government ministries involved in healthcare provision, the independent, private sector and the non-government organisation/charity sector. The framework provides a visualisation to support the analysis of a country's health services providers. We propose that recognising and analysing the different contributions of all these national health providers is essential for understanding the wider political economy of a nation's health systems. This can inform a plan of Defence Health Engagement for capacity building in crisis response, development and health systems strengthening.

Income and wealth as determinants of voluntary private health insurance: empirical evidence in Spain, 2008-2014.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have quantitatively estimated the income elasticity of demand of voluntary private health insurance (VPHI) in countries with a universal National Health Service. Most studies to date have uses cross-sectional data. METHODS: In this paper we used a longitudinal database from the Bank of Spain to analyse the financial behaviour of approximately six thousand families per wave. We used three waves (2008, 2011 and 2014). We estimated income and wealth semi-elasticities of VPHI in Spain considering personal and family characteristics (age, sex, level of health, education, composition of the household), i.e. changes in the probability of buying VPHI as result of 1% change in income or wealth. We estimated cross-sectional models for each wave and longitudinal models for families remaining for at least two waves, taking account of possible selection bias due to attrition. RESULTS: Cross-sectional models suggest that the income effect on the probability of buying a VPHI increased from 2008 to 2014. The positive impact was observed for, wealth. In 2008 a 1% increase in income is associated with an increase in the probability of having VPHI of 0.064 [95%-CI: 0.023; 0.104] - on the probability scale (0.1) - whereas in 2014, this effect is of 0.116 [95%-CI, 0.094; 0.139]. In 2011 and 2014 the wealth effect is not significant at 5%. The estimation of the longitudinal model leads to different results where both, income and wealth are associated with non- significant results. CONCLUSION: Our three main conclusions are: 1) Cross-sectional estimates of semi-elasticities of VPHI might be biased upwards; 2) Wealth is alongside income are economic determinants, of the decision to buy VPHI in high-income countries; 3) The effects of income and wealth on the probability of buying VHPI are neither linear nor log-linear. There are no significant differences among 60% of the most disadvantaged families, while the families of the two upper wealth quintiles show clearly differentiated behaviour with a higher probability of insurance.

Lessons from the evaluation of the South African National Female Condom Programme.

BACKGROUND: Understanding of the facilitators and challenges to female condom (FC) uptake has been limited due to lack of evaluation of national FC programmes. SETTING: The FC has been an integral component of South Africa's (SA) HIV prevention programme for 20 years and is the largest government-funded FC programme worldwide. METHODS: The national FC evaluation used a mixed-methods approach and consisted of key informant interviews and a telephone survey in a national sample of public and non-public sites. A sub-sample of sites participated in client and provider interviews, and a self-administered client survey. A review of distribution statistics from South Africa's District Health Information System was also conducted. RESULTS: All 256 public-sector and 28 non-public-sector facilities reported having ever distributed FCs. Less than 5% of these facilities reported stock-outs and less than 3% reported they had a supply of expired female condoms. Systems for male condom (MC) and FC distribution were complementary, with similar ordering, delivery and reporting processes. FC promotion by providers (n = 278) varied with regard to FC training, whether attitudes about FCs influenced providers offer of FCs, and how they counselled clients about FCs. Of the 4442 self-administered client surveys in 133 facilities, similar proportions of women (15.4%) and men (15.2%) had ever used FCs. Although FCs were available at almost all sites surveyed, only two-thirds of clients were aware of their availability. CONCLUSION: Data highlight the role of providers as gatekeepers to FC access in public and non-public sectors and provide support for further FC programme expansion in SA and globally.

The usage of over-the-counter products by private insured patients in Germany - a claims data analysis with focus on complementary medicine.

BACKGROUND: An important contribution to well-being of human beings can be observed by the use of self-medication products that is reflected in the constantly growing volume of over-the-counter (OTC) drugs. The aim of the current study was to extend the measurement concept for OTCs by exploring the relevance of the peripheral assortment provided by the widely accepted framework of the Anatomical Therapeutical and Chemical (ATC) classification of the WHO. METHODS: The focus was on the prescriptions and drug-related receipts submitted by privately insured persons to 18 private health insurers (PHIs) in Germany from the year 2016. The age- and gender-specific average claims amount per risks of outpatient drug expenditure were used as weights to scale up the relative distributions of the item amounts. The ATC-classification defines the commodity groups and discriminates between the main and the peripheral assortment. A descriptive analysis assessed the OTC frequencies and sum scores of the product groups within the main and peripheral assortment whereby the study group explored and assessed the relevance of each category independently according to the OTCs and integrative medicines. RESULTS: The analysis included 22.1 Mio. packages from the main assortment and examined 10.1 Mio. packages from the peripheral assortment. The latter was examined thoroughly and the commodity groups "Pharmaceutical food products", "Medicinal products for special therapy options" and particular "Hygiene and body care products" meet the defined requirements for OTCs relevant for integrative medicines. A high proportion of OTC products from the peripheral assortment was associated with the categories "medicinal products for special therapy options". Homeopathy and anthroposophy present two special therapy options, which are relevant for the extended OTC measurement. CONCLUSIONS: The analysis of OTC drugs is feasible when the main and the peripheral assortment is available and enable to integrate about 18% of all OTCs, which are neglected by the common ATC-based approach. The presented extended approach may help to identify potential users of OTCs or people in need of OTC use. In case of the highly disputed homeopathy and anthroposophy products, more research among interactions with prescriptions drugs (Rx), nutrition's and other potentially harmful exposures is recommended.