Intervenções psicológicas necessárias: a prática como residente no serviço de medicina fetal / Necessary psychological interventions: the practice as a resident in the fetal medicine service / Intervenciones psicológicas necesarias: la práctica como residente en el servicio de medicina fetal

Com os avanços tecnológicos e o aprimoramento da prática médica via ultrassonografia, já é possível detectar possíveis problemas no feto desde a gestação. O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar a prática do psicólogo no contexto de gestações que envolvem riscos fetais. Trata-se de um estudo qualitativo sob formato de relato de experiência como psicólogo residente no Serviço de Medicina Fetal da Maternidade Escola da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ). Os registros, feitos por observação participante e diário de campo, foram analisados em dois eixos temáticos: 1) intervenções psicológicas no trabalho em equipe em consulta de pré-natal, exame de ultrassonografia e procedimento de amniocentese; e 2) intervenções psicológicas em casos de bebês incompatíveis com a vida. Os resultados indicaram que o psicólogo nesse serviço é essencial para atuar de forma multiprofissional na assistência pré-natal para gravidezes de alto risco fetal. Ademais, a preceptoria do residente é relevante para sua formação e treinamento para atuação profissional no campo da psicologia perinatal.(AU)

Face to the technological advances and the improvement of medical practice via ultrasound, it is already possible to detect possible problems in the fetus since pregnancy. The objective of this study was to analyze the psychologist's practice in the context of pregnancies which involve fetal risks. It is a qualitative study based on an experience report as a psychologist trainee at the Fetal Medicine Service of the Maternity School of UFRJ. The records, based on the participant observation and field diary, were analyzed in two thematic axes: 1) psychological interventions in the teamwork in the prenatal attendance, ultrasound examination and amniocentesis procedure; and 2) psychological interventions in cases of babies incompatible to the life. The results indicated that the psychologist in this service is essential to work in a multidisciplinary way at the prenatal care for high fetal risk pregnancies. Furthermore, the resident's preceptorship is relevant to their education and training for professional performance in the field of Perinatal Psychology.(AU)

Con los avances tecnológicos y la mejora de la práctica médica a través de la ecografía, ya se puede detectar posibles problemas en el feto desde el embarazo. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar la práctica del psicólogo en el contexto de embarazos de riesgos fetal. Es un estudio cualitativo basado en un relato de experiencia como residente de psicología en el Servicio de Medicina Fetal de la Escuela de Maternidad de la Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ). Los registros, realizados en la observación participante y el diario de campo, se analizaron en dos ejes temáticos: 1) intervenciones psicológicas en el trabajo en equipo, en la consulta prenatal, ecografía y los procedimientos de amniocentesis; y 2) intervenciones psicológicas en casos de bebés incompatibles con la vida. Los resultados señalaron como fundamental la presencia del psicólogo en este servicio trabajando de forma multidisciplinar en la atención prenatal en el contexto de embarazos de alto riesgo fetal. Además, la tutela del residente es relevante para su educación y formación para el desempeño profesional en el campo de la Psicología Perinatal.(AU)

Utilization of Partograph and its associated factors among midwives working in public health institutions, Addis Ababa City Administration,Ethiopia,2017.

BACKGROUND: Partograph is cost effective and affordable tool designed to provide a continuous pictorial overview and labour progress used to prevent prolonged and obstructed labour. It consists of key information about progress of labour, fetal condition and maternal condition. Its role is to improve outcomes and predict the progress of labour. The aim of this study was to assess utilization of partograph and its predictors among midwives working in public health facilities, Addis Ababa city administration, Ethiopia, 2017. METHODS: An institution based cross-sectional study design was conducted in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia from 15/10/2017-15/12/2017.Simple random sampling under multistage sampling technique was applied to select a total of 605 midwives working in maternity unit of selected public health facilities. Data were collected using structured self-administered questionnaire. Checklist based direct observations were made to all midwife participants to determine the actual practical use of partograph. Data first entered in to EpiInfo version 3.5.1 and transported to SPSS Version 21.Descriptive statistics such as frequency, percentage, mean, and median were calculated. Biviriate and multivariable logistic regression analysis were applied. Any personal identification of the study participants was not recorded during data collection to ensure confidentiality of information. RESULTS: In this study, the utilization of partograph was 409(69%) out of 594 study participants. Being mentored(AOR = 3.1; 95% CI: 1.7, 5.3),received training (AOR = 2.4; 95% CI:1.5,3.6),being knowledgeable about partograph (AOR = 1.6; 95% CI: 1.1, 2.5), health center workers(AOR = 12.6; 95% CI:5.1,31.6),supportive supervision 4 times per year (AOR = 18.6; 95% CI: 6.6,25),supportive supervision twice per a year (AOR = 4.7; 95% CI: 1.9, 11.3),supportive supervision once per year (AOR =3.8;95% CI:1.7,8.8) were positive predictors of partograph utilization. Two midwives per shift (AOR = 0.101; 95% CI: 0.05, 0.65), and 4 per shift (AOR = 0.105, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.40) were protective predictors of partograph utilization. CONCLUSIONS: More than half of the respondents utilized partograph. All public health institutions avail partograph in their laboring room but didn't utilize it according to WHO recommended standard. Working facility, supportive supervision, mentoring, training on partograph, number of midwives working per shift, and knowledge were factors affecting partograph utilization. Encouraging interventions are recommended to the response of the above significantly associated factors.

Prepregnancy counseling: Committee Opinion No. 762.

The goal of prepregnancy care is to reduce the risk of adverse health effects for the woman, fetus, and neonate by working with the woman to optimize health, address modifiable risk factors, and provide education about healthy pregnancy. All those planning to initiate a pregnancy should be counseled, including heterosexual, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, intersex, asexual, and gender nonconforming individuals. Counseling can begin with the following question: "Would you like to become pregnant in the next year?" Prepregnancy counseling is appropriate whether the reproductive-aged patient is currently using contraception or planning pregnancy. Because health status and risk factors can change over time, prepregnancy counseling should occur several times during a woman's reproductive lifespan, increasing her opportunity for education and potentially maximizing her reproductive and pregnancy outcomes. Many chronic medical conditions such as diabetes, hypertension, psychiatric illness, and thyroid disease have implications for pregnancy outcomes and should be optimally managed before pregnancy. Counseling patients about optimal intervals between pregnancies may be helpful to reduce future complications. Assessment of the need for sexually transmitted infection screening should be performed at the time of prepregnancy counseling. Women who present for prepregnancy counseling should be offered screening for the same genetic conditions as recommended for pregnant women. All patients should be routinely asked about their use of alcohol, nicotine products, and drugs, including prescription opioids and other medications used for nonmedical reasons. Screening for intimate partner violence should occur during prepregnancy counseling. Female prepregnancy folic acid supplementation should be encouraged to reduce the risk of neural tube defects.

Características clínicas, prevalência e diagnóstico de vulvovaginites em ambulatório do interior do Rio Grande do Sul / Clinical characteristics and prevalence of vulvovaginitis in a clinic in the interior of the Rio Grande do Sul

Introdução: As vulvovaginites são uma das principais queixas no atendimento rotineiro de ginecologia. O diagnóstico correto e o tratamento precoce dessas afecções são importantes além de prevenir possíveis repercussões no trato genital superior. Objetivo: Conhecer as características clínicas e a prevalência das vulvovaginites. Metodologia: Estudo transversal de natureza exploratória e descritiva, de abordagem quantitativa sobre mulheres que foram atendidas na Unidade de Atendimento de um Ambulatório de Ginecologia do Sistema Integrado de Saúde (SIS) na Universidade de Santa Cruz do Sul, no período de setembro de 2014 a maio de 2015. As variáveis analisadas foram: idade, queixas clínicas, exame ginecológico e achados no exame a fresco. Os dados foram analisados no SPSS 22.0. Resultados: Do total de 200 pacientes atendidas no ambulatório, 66 (33%) foram selecionadas para realização do exame a fresco. A leucorreia fisiológica foi diagnosticada em 35 pacientes (53,0%), a vaginose bacteriana em 24 (36,5%), a candidíase em 6 (9,0%) e a tricomoníase em 1 (1,5%). Na vaginose bacteriana leucorreia com odor fétido, na candidíase leucoréia grumosa branca, prurido, ardência, vulva eritematosa e dispaurenia foram significativos para o diagnóstico (p < 0,05). Conclusões: Observou-se que a faixa etária das mulheres acometidas por vulvovaginites foi compatível com a literatura, predominando em idade reprodutiva. Constatou-se que a vaginose bacteriana foi a mais diagnosticada e que a leucorreia com odor fétido foi o sintoma estatisticamente significativo para o diagnóstico. Da mesma forma, a candidíase, com leucorreia grumosa branca, prurido, ardência, vulva eritematosa e dispareunia. (AU)

Introduction: vulvovaginitis are one of the main complaints in the routine care of gynecology. The proper diagnosis and early treatment are important to the patient and prevent possible repercussions in the upper genital tract. Objective: To analyze the clinical characteristics and the prevalence of vulvovaginitis. Methods: Cross-sectional study of exploratory and descriptive, quantitative approach, by applying a structured questionnaire and conducting fresh examination in women who were treated at the Unit Clinical Care of Gynecology of the Integrated Health System (IHS) at the University of Santa Cruz do Sul, from September 2014 to May 2015. The variables analyzed were: age, symptoms, gynecological examination and findings in fresh examination. Data were analyzed by using SPSS 22.0. Results: From a total of 200 patients seen at the clinic, 66 (3.3%) were selected for the performance of the fresh examination. The most common query reason was the collection of cytological (56.0%). Physiological leukorrhea was diagnosed in 35 patients (53.0%), bacterial vaginosis in 24 (36.5%), candidiasis 6 (9.0%) and trichomoniasis in 1 (1.5%). In bacterial vaginosis, a vaginal discharge with foul odor was a significant symptom for diagnosis, in candidiasis, white crumbly leukorrhea, pruritus, burning sensation, dyspareunia, vulvar erythema were also significant for diagnosis (p <0.05). Conclusions: It was observed that the age of women affected by vulvovaginites was consistent with the literature, predominantly at reproductive age. It was found that bacterial vaginosis was the most diagnosed and that foul-smelling vaginal discharge was a statistically significant (p<0.05) symptom for diagnosis. Likewise, in the case of candidiasis, crumbly white leukorrhea, pruritus, burning, vulvar erythema and dyspareunia were statistically significant for diagnosis and considered the cardinal symptoms of vulvovaginites. (AU)

Knowledge of partograph and its associated factors among obstetric care providers in North Shoa Zone, Central Ethiopia: a cross sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Globally, there are 210 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births in 2013. Ethiopia is one of the ten countries contributing to 60% of the global maternal deaths. Most of these deaths could be averted by enhancing safe motherhood strategies and providing skilled care at each delivery. This skilled care includes the use of partograph to monitor the progress of labor. With this aspect, this study is aimed to assess knowledge of partograph and its associated factors among obstetric care providers in North Shoa Zone, Central Ethiopia. METHODS: An institution-based cross-sectional study was conducted in June, 2013. Four hundred three obstetric care providers were included in the study. A pre-tested and structured questionnaire was used to collect data. Data were entered into the Epi-Info software and exported to SPSS software for further analysis. Logistic regression analyses were used to identify the associated factors. Odds ratios with 95% confidence interval (CI) were computed to determine the presence and strength of association. RESULTS: In this study; 287 (71.2%) of obstetric care providers had a good level of knowledge on the partograph. Working in the hospital [Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 2.71, P = 0. 027, 95% CI 1.32, 5.57) and getting on the job training (AOR = 5.49, P = 0.001, 95% CI 3.32, 9.08) were significantly associated with knowledge about partograph. CONCLUSIONS: A significant percentage of care providers had a good level of knowledge about partograph. Working in the hospital and getting on the job training were factors affecting provider's knowledge on the partograph. The provision of on the job training is necessary to improve provider's knowledge on the partograph. Moreover, giving a due attention for provider at health centers is also important.

Evaluation of an Obstetric Ultrasound Curriculum for Midwives in Liberia.

OBJECTIVES: Point-of-care ultrasound is an effective tool for clinical decision making in low- and middle-income countries, but lack of trained providers is a barrier to its utility in these settings. In Liberia, given that midwives provide most prenatal care, it is hypothesized that training them in prenatal ultrasound through an intensive condensed training course is both feasible and practical. METHODS: This quantitative prospective study of preobservational and postobservational assessment evaluated a 1-week ultrasound curriculum consisting of 4 modules, each comprising a didactic component, a practical session, and supervised patient encounters. A knowledge-based pretest and presurvey addressing prior use and comfort were administered. At the intervention conclusion, identical posttests and postsurveys were administered with an objective structured clinical examination (OSCE). The test, survey, and OSCE were repeated after 1 year. All scores and responses were tabulated, and qualitative analysis with paired t tests was performed. RESULTS: Thirty-one midwives underwent intervention and written evaluation, with 14 followed up at 1 year. Seventeen underwent the OSCE, with 8 retained at 1 year. There was a significant increase between pretest and immediate and 1-year posttest scores (36.6% versus 90% and 66%; P < .001) but no difference between immediate and 1-year posttest scores (90% versus 66%; P > .05). Average overall comfort using ultrasound increased from presurvey to immediate postsurvey scores (from 1.8 to 3.8; P< .001) and remained higher at the 1-year postsurvey (1.8 to 3.4; P< .05). Overall OSCE scores remained high from immediately after the OSCE to 1 year after the OSCE (78% to 55%; P > .05). CONCLUSIONS: Midwives in Liberia had very low baseline knowledge and comfort using ultrasound. A 1-week curriculum increased both short- and long-term knowledge and comfort and led to adequate overall OSCE scores that were retained at 1 year.

Ovarian cysts in prepubertal girls.

Visualization of follicles is perfectly physiological during childhood, their diameter generally does not exceed 10 mm. Ovarian cyst in childhood is well defined for a fluid image >20 mm. Generally mild and asymptomatic, ovarian cysts are fluid formations usually discovered incidentally by ultrasound. Some are hormonally active and cause the development of sexual characteristics. The natural history of functional cysts is eventual regression, and persistence is suggestive of organic tumor. The onset of pain is a sign of complication, and an abrupt sharp pain with vomiting is suggestive of ovarian torsion, in which case surgical intervention is urgent. In all cases, the diagnosis is based on pelvic ultrasound. MRI and tumor marker assays are required to determine the nature of an organic cyst before proceeding to surgery. These cysts may appear functional from the fetal period onward and will require management from the first days of life. Certain endocrine disorders such as precocious puberty, hypothyroidism, and aromatase deficiency cause functional cysts in girls. Recurrent bleeding is due to hormonally active cysts and suggests McCune-Albright syndrome. Although the persistence of a cyst suggests a neoplasm, a fluid character indicates benignity. Imagery is a useful aid in the diagnosis of epithelial tumors (cystadenomas) or teratoma (dermoid cyst).

[Different methods for the induction of labour in postterm pregnancy]. / Modalités du déclenchement dans les grossesses prolongées.

OBJECTIVES: Define methods of induction of labour for the population of pregnant women at the end of 41 SA and beyond, including membranes sweeping, mechanical and pharmacological procedures as oxytocin, prostaglandin E1 (misoprostol) and E2 (dinoprostone) and other methods as well for the scarred uterus. METHODS: Bibliographic research done by consulting databases PubMed, and Cochrane. RESULTS: Membrane sweeping reduces by 41% the need of induction of labour at 41 SA and 72% for postterm (42 SA). Membrane sweeping is a technique with some discomfort for the patient but has advantages. This procedure should not be imposed on patients in a systematic visit because it presents inconveniences (contractions, bleeding, pain). Oxytocin remains the gold standard used for labour induction and requires well-codified rationale protocols in maternity for increasing doses. Most of the trials show that this product is appropriate when the cervix is considered as favorable (Bishop ≥ 6). In the presence of intact membranes, induction by oxytocin must be associated with amniotomy for a significant reduction in "induction-delivery" period. The Foley catheter is a mechanically reliable, reproducible method for inducing labour with less uterine hyperstimulation without increasing the rate of caesarean sections. It is an interesting process but maternal and neonatal infectious morbidity appears to be possibly increased. The non-vaginal PGE2 (cervical) are no longer recommended. The PGE2 vaginal gel or pessary are comparable methods to induce labour. They can be used to successfully induce labour regardless of cervical Bishop score. In case of unfavorable cervical conditions, PGE2 can reduce the use of oxytocin and decrease the required doses. Misoprostol is a molecule that may be proposed for induction of labour provided to know the doses, risks and side effects and to adapt materno-fetal monitoring. The optimal route of administration remains yet to be assessed because of a higher risk of hyperstimulation or tachysystole. Initial doses should be 25 µg. However, misoprostol did not have the authorization in this indication and merit some caution when using it. Prostaglandin E1 is associated with a high risk of uterine rupture and should not be used after caesarean section. Acupuncture, homeopathy NO donors, breast stimulation or sexual intercourse are methods ineffective in all conditions or assessment is insufficient to conclude with evidence based medicine. CONCLUSION: In postterm, different procedures could be performed for induction of labour. Furthermore membrane sweeping, oxytocin is the drug of choice for induction on favourable cervix and one of the most commonly used drugs. Vaginal prostaglandins E2 are effective whatever the cervical conditions. Misoprostol is a very interesting pharmacological molecule without authorization in this indication but has real advantages on efficacy, cost, storage and administration. Other studies with high power have to remain on track and to focus on the optimal and route doses because of increased risk of tachysystole or hyperstimulation with effects on the FHR. Minimal doses at 25µg seem to be safe. The Foley catheter is a reliable method without any pharmacological effect and opening interesting perspectives but with caution about the possible increased infectious risks.

The use of three-dimensional ultrasound does not improve training in fetal biometric measurements.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether three-dimensional (3D) technology offers any advantage over two-dimensional (2D) ultrasound in fetal biometric measurement training. METHODS: Ten midwives with no hands-on experience in ultrasound were randomized to receive training on 2D or 3D ultrasound fetal biometry assessment. Midwives were taught how to obtain fetal biometric measurements (biparietal diameter (BPD), head circumference (HC), abdominal circumference (AC), and femur length (FL)) by a trainer. Subsequently, each midwife measured the parameters on another 10 fetuses. The same set of measurements was repeated by the trainer. The percentage deviation between the midwives' and the trainer's measurements was determined and compared between training groups. Time required for completion was recorded. Frozen images were reviewed by another sonographer to assess the image quality using a standardized scoring system. RESULTS: The median time for the complete set of measurements was significantly shorter in the 2D than in 3D group (13.4 min versus 17.8 min, P = 0.03). The mean percentage deviations did not reach statistical significance between the two groups except for FL (3.83% in 2D group versus 2.23% in 3D group (P = 0.046)). There were no significant differences in the quality scores. CONCLUSIONS: This study showed that the only demonstrable advantage of 3D ultrasound was a slightly more accurate measurement of FL, at the expense of a significantly longer time required.

Measurement of electrical resistance of dermal-visceral zones as a diagnostic tool for gynecologic disorders.

BACKGROUND: Non-invasive screening tests may allow early diagnosis and prompt treatment, thereby potentially reducing morbidity and mortality and reducing costs for the community. This may be especially important for gynecologic pathologies that are difficult to promptly diagnose, such as endometriosis or ovarian cancer. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the reliability of measuring skin resistance using the Medex Test for screening and diagnosis of gynecologic pathologies in a blinded single-center study. METHODS: We enrolled 150 patients: 59 with a functional disorder and 91 with an organic disease. Measurements were carried out in all patients and the results were analyzed separately by a second physician who was blinded to the patients' diagnosis. RESULTS: A high correlation was found between the clinical diagnosis and the results of the measurement of electrical skin resistance, with a specificity of 76.3% (45/59) for functional disorders and a sensitivity of 85.7% (78/91) for organic disorders, positive predictive value of 84.8% (78/92) and negative predictive value 77.6% (45/58). The kappa value for the results was 0.622, representing a value much better than expected randomly. CONCLUSIONS: The Medex Test has a good specificity and a high sensitivity for the diagnosis of gynecologic disorders. Further prospective studies are needed to validate these preliminary findings.

Assistência ao primeiro período do trabalho de parto baseada em evidências: [revisão] / Assistance to the first period of labor based on evidence: [review]

A medicalização do parto encontra-se associada ao aumento da incidência de cesarianas. Da mesma forma, uma adequada assistência ao parto acarretará na maior parte dos casos resolução da gestação por via vaginal. Na assistência ao primeiro período do parto, várias práticas são tradicionalmente adotadas, porém sem forte evidência científica. Assim, realizou-se uma revisão da literatura em busca das melhores evidências disponíveis sobre a assistência ao primeiro período do trabalho de parto. Foram abordados desde o local da assistência, a importância da definição do risco da gestante, até a posição da paciente e algumas intervenções, como jejum, realização de enema, punção venosa e infusão de líquidos, tricotomia, deambulação, utilização do partograma, monitorização da frequência cardíaca fetal, manejo ativo do trabalho de parto com utilização de ocitocina e amniotomia precoce, o alívio da dor por métodos não farmacológicos, a analgesia de parto peridural e combinada, além do suporte contínuo intraparto. Procedimentos como jejum, tricotomia e enteróclise devem ser evitados, uma vez que não há evidências para sua utilização. Parturientes devem ser encorajadas a deambular ou adotar a posição que preferirem durante o primeiro período do parto. Imersão em água e suporte contínuo intraparto reduzem efetivamente a dor do trabalho de parto. Hipnose e acupuntura são métodos não farmacológicos para alívio da dor que levam à redução significativa da necessidade de analgesia.O uso do partograma em países de baixa renda se associa com redução das taxas de cesariana. O manejo ativo do trabalho de parto com amniotomia e ocitocina não deve ser recomendado de rotina. Todas as decisões sobre assistência ao primeiro período de parto devem ser discutidas previamente com as parturientes, sobretudo em situações em que não existem evidências suficientes para sua recomendação.

Medicalization of childbirth is associated with an increasing rate of cesarean sections. Similarly, adequate labor and delivery management implies vaginal delivery in most of cases. During first stage of labor, several practices and procedures are commonly adopted but without strong scientific evidence. A literature review was conducted searching for the best evidences available with respect to the management of first stage labor. Several points were considered: place of delivery, definition of risk, position during labor, interventions like fasting, shaving, enema, intravenous access, ambulation, partogram use, fetal heart rate monitoring, active management with routine oxytocin and amniotomy, pain relief with non-pharmacological methods, epidural and combined analgesia and continuous intrapartum support. Fasting, enema and shaving are procedures that could be avoided because there are no evidences of the benefits of their utilization. Pregnant women should be encouraged to ambulate or to adopt their preferred position during first stage of labor. Immersion in water and continuous intrapartum support reduce pain labor significantly. Hypnosis and acupuncture are non-pharmacological.

Activity of a Lactobacillus acidophilus-based douche for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis.

OBJECTIVES: Bacterial vaginosis is characterized by alteration of the normal vaginal microflora, in which a mixed anaerobic bacterial flora becomes prevalent over the population of lacobacilli. Because administration of probiotics might be of some utility in restoring a normal flora, the present study aimed to evaluate the effect of a Lactobacillus acidophilus-strain-based douche on the vaginal environment in bacterial vaginosis. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In an open-label pilot evaluation, 40 women with bacterial vaginosis as defined by Amsel's criteria were treated for 6 days with a douche containing L. acidophilus. Vaginal smears were collected from the patients and analyzed according to Nugent's criteria at the time of diagnosis, after 6 days of treatment, and again at 20 days after the last treatment. At the same times, determination of vaginal pH and a Whiff test were performed. RESULTS: The Nugent score decreased significantly from bacterial vaginosis or an intermediate flora toward a normal flora during treatment, and remained low during the follow-up period for almost all of the patients, indicating bacterial vaginosis in 52.5% and in 7.5% of the patients before treatment and at follow-up, respectively. After treatment, significant decreases in vaginal pH were observed, to less than pH 4.5 in 34/40 women, and the odor test became negative in all of the patients. CONCLUSIONS: In this preliminary study, treatment of bacterial vaginosis with a vaginal douche containing a strain of L. acidophilus contributed to the restoration of a normal vaginal environment.

Exploración ginecológica en pediatría / Ginecology examination in clinical pediatrics

La evaluación y el manejo de algunos problemas que se presentan en las niñas, dependen de su edad; es necesario que éstas sean vistas por un ®experto¼ que tenga la capacidad de evaluar la madurez fisiológica, así como experiencia en el manejo de las técnicas específicas en el examen de pacientes pediátricas. Los cuidados se inician desde la sala de partos con el examen del neonato, continúan con el manejo de los padecimientos en la edad pediátrica, y se extienden hasta la adolescencia