Integrative physiology and transcriptome reveal salt-tolerance differences between two licorice species: Ion transport, Casparian strip formation and flavonoids biosynthesis.

BACKGROUND: Glycyrrhiza inflata Bat. and Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. are both original plants of 'Gan Cao' in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, and G. uralensis is currently the mainstream variety of licorice and has a long history of use in traditional Chinese medicine. Both of these species have shown some degree of tolerance to salinity, G. inflata exhibits higher salt tolerance than G. uralensis and can grow on saline meadow soils and crusty saline soils. However, the regulatory mechanism responsible for the differences in salt tolerance between different licorice species is unclear. Due to land area-related limitations, the excavation and cultivation of licorice varieties in saline-alkaline areas that both exhibit tolerance to salt and contain highly efficient active substances are needed. The systematic identification of the key genes and pathways associated with the differences in salt tolerance between these two licorice species will be beneficial for cultivating high-quality salt-tolerant licorice G. uralensis plant varieties and for the long-term development of the licorice industry. In this research, the differences in growth response indicators, ion accumulation, and transcription expression between the two licorice species were analyzed. RESULTS: This research included a comprehensive comparison of growth response indicators, including biomass, malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and total flavonoids content, between two distinct licorice species and an analysis of their ion content and transcriptome expression. In contrast to the result found for G. uralensis, the salt treatment of G. inflata ensured the stable accumulation of biomass and total flavonoids at 0.5 d, 15 d, and 30 d and the restriction of Na+ to the roots while allowing for more K+ and Ca2+ accumulation. Notably, despite the increase in the Na+ concentration in the roots, the MDA concentration remained low. Transcriptome analysis revealed that the regulatory effects of growth and ion transport on the two licorice species were strongly correlated with the following pathways and relevant DEGs: the TCA cycle, the pentose phosphate pathway, and the photosynthetic carbon fixation pathway involved in carbon metabolism; Casparian strip formation (lignin oxidation and translocation, suberin formation) in response to Na+; K+ and Ca2+ translocation, organic solute synthesis (arginine, polyamines, GABA) in response to osmotic stresses; and the biosynthesis of the nonenzymatic antioxidants carotenoids and flavonoids in response to antioxidant stress. Furthermore, the differential expression of the DEGs related to ABA signaling in hormone transduction and the regulation of transcription factors such as the HSF and GRAS families may be associated with the remarkable salt tolerance of G. inflata. CONCLUSION: Compared with G. uralensis, G. inflata exhibits greater salt tolerance, which is primarily attributable to factors related to carbon metabolism, endodermal barrier formation and development, K+ and Ca2+ transport, biosynthesis of carotenoids and flavonoids, and regulation of signal transduction pathways and salt-responsive transcription factors. The formation of the Casparian strip, especially the transport and oxidation of lignin precursors, is likely the primary reason for the markedly higher amount of Na+ in the roots of G. inflata than in those of G. uralensis. The tendency of G. inflata to maintain low MDA levels in its roots under such conditions is closely related to the biosynthesis of flavonoids and carotenoids and the maintenance of the osmotic balance in roots by the absorption of more K+ and Ca2+ to meet growth needs. These findings may provide new insights for developing and cultivating G. uralensis plant species selected for cultivation in saline environments or soils managed through agronomic practices that involve the use of water with a high salt content.

[Erchen Decoction improves iron homeostasis in mice with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by regulating iron transport capacity in the spleen].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of Erchen Decoction on iron homeostasis in mice with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and its mechanism for regulating iron transport in spleen cells. METHODS: Thirty male C57BL/6J mice were given a high-fat diet for 12 weeks and randomized (n=6) at the 7th week for gavage (3 times a week) of drinking water (NAFLD model group), Erchen Decoction at low, medium and high doses (7.5, 15, and 30g/kg, respectively), or polyene phosphatidyl choline (PPC; 9.12 mg/kg), with another 6 mice with low-fat and low-sugar feeding as the control group. The active components of Erchen Decoction were determined by HPLC-MS. Lipid accumulation in the liver was evaluated by HE staining and Nile red staining. Prussian blue staining was used to observe iron content in the spleen. The iron ion content in the liver tissue was detected using a detection kit. The expressions of ferroportin1 (Fpn1), transferrin receptor (TfR), Steap3, HO-1, Ter-119, CD163 and CD68 were detected using Western blotting, immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence staining. RESULTS: Medium- and high-dose Erchen Decoction partially reversed the increase of lipid accumulation in the liver of NAFLD mice and showed better lipid-lowering effect than PPC. The NAFLD mice showed significantly decreased iron ion content in the spleen with increased hepatic and serum iron contents (P < 0.05), decreased TfR protein expression (P < 0.05), and increased Fpn1 and Steap3 protein expressions (P < 0.05), and these changes were significantly improved by the drug interventions. Erchen Decoction also improved the function of CD163 macrophages in the spleen of NAFLD mice by up-regulating the expression of HO-1 (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Erchen Decoction can alleviate high-fat diet-induced iron metabolism disorder by improving the iron ion transport ability of the spleen cells to delay the progression of NAFLD.

SLC26A1 is a major determinant of sulfate homeostasis in humans.

Sulfate plays a pivotal role in numerous physiological processes in the human body, including bone and cartilage health. A role of the anion transporter SLC26A1 (Sat1) for sulfate reabsorption in the kidney is supported by the observation of hyposulfatemia and hypersulfaturia in Slc26a1-knockout mice. The impact of SLC26A1 on sulfate homeostasis in humans remains to be defined. By combining clinical genetics, functional expression assays, and population exome analysis, we identify SLC26A1 as a sulfate transporter in humans and experimentally validate several loss-of-function alleles. Whole-exome sequencing from a patient presenting with painful perichondritis, hyposulfatemia, and renal sulfate wasting revealed a homozygous mutation in SLC26A1, which has not been previously described to the best of our knowledge. Whole-exome data analysis of more than 5,000 individuals confirmed that rare, putatively damaging SCL26A1 variants were significantly associated with lower plasma sulfate at the population level. Functional expression assays confirmed a substantial reduction in sulfate transport for the SLC26A1 mutation of our patient, which we consider to be novel, as well as for the additional variants detected in the population study. In conclusion, combined evidence from 3 complementary approaches supports SLC26A1 activity as a major determinant of sulfate homeostasis in humans. In view of recent evidence linking sulfate homeostasis with back pain and intervertebral disc disorder, our study identifies SLC26A1 as a potential target for modulation of musculoskeletal health.

DNA-Based Optical Quantification of Ion Transport across Giant Vesicles.

Accurate measurements of ion permeability through cellular membranes remains challenging due to the lack of suitable ion-selective probes. Here we use giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) as membrane models for the direct visualization of mass translocation at the single-vesicle level. Ion transport is indicated with a fluorescently adjustable DNA-based sensor that accurately detects sub-millimolar variations in K+ concentration. In combination with microfluidics, we employed our DNA-based K+ sensor for extraction of the permeation coefficient of potassium ions. We measured K+ permeability coefficients at least 1 order of magnitude larger than previously reported values from bulk experiments and show that permeation rates across the lipid bilayer increase in the presence of octanol. In addition, an analysis of the K+ flux in different concentration gradients allows us to estimate the complementary H+ flux that dissipates the charge imbalance across the GUV membrane. Subsequently, we show that our sensor can quantify the K+ transport across prototypical cation-selective ion channels, gramicidin A and OmpF, revealing their relative H+/K+ selectivity. Our results show that gramicidin A is much more selective to protons than OmpF with a H+/K+ permeability ratio of ∼104.

The impact of Morus alba L. leaf extract on intestinal ion transport. An in vitro study.

Morus alba L. (White mulberry), is an important and popular herbal plant of the Moraceae family. It has been widely used due to its therapeutic properties, which include antidiabetic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular, and hypolpidemic activity. The present study evaluates the effects of aqueous white mulberry leaf extract on the transepithelial ion pathway in the rabbit colon epithelium (n = 48), using electrophysiological methods. In addition, the antioxidant potential and the chemical composition of the extract were determined. A mechanical-chemical stimulation with white mulberry in RH fluid (MB-RH) caused a statistically significant (p < 0.001) increase in the transepithelial electrical potential difference, from - 0.130 to - 0.685 mV. Gentle washing of the intestine with white mulberry in bumetanide, used as inhibitor of transepithelial chloride pathways, resulted in 14.8% shorter reaction than during MB-RH stimulation. There were no statistically significant differences between the electric potential values measured during stimulation with amiloride solution, used as inhibitor of transepithelial sodium pathways, and white mulberry in amilorid solution (p = 0.485). A short-term application of extract to the colon epithelium is responsible for local and reversible inhibition of chloride ion channels. The extract enhances sodium ion absorption and consequently changes the electrical potential. The effect of white mulberry extract on sodium ion transport may be related to the mechanism of hypoglycaemic activity of mulberry leaves.

Light-Regulated Nanofluidic Ionic Diodes with Heterogeneous Channels Stemming from Asymmetric Growth of Metal-Organic Frameworks.

Nanofluidic ionic diodes have attracted much attention, because of the unique property of asymmetric ion transport and promising applications in molecular sensing and biosensing. However, it remains a challenge to fabricate diode-like nanofluidic system with molecular-size pores. Herein, we report a new and facile approach to construct nanofluidic ionic diode by in situ asymmetric growth of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) in nanochannels. We implement microwave-assisted strategy to obtain asymmetric distribution of MOFs in porous anodic aluminum oxide with barrier layer on one side. After etching the barrier layer and modifying with positively charged molecules, the nanofluidic device possesses asymmetric geometry and surface charge, performing the ionic current rectification (ICR) behavior in different electrolyte concentrations. Moreover, the ICR ratio is readily regulated with visible light illumination mainly due to the enhancement of surface charge of MOFs, which is further confirmed by finite element simulation. This study provides a reliable way to build the nanofluidic platform for investigating the asymmetric ion transport through the molecular-size pores, which is envisaged to be important for molecular sensing based on ICR with molecular-size pores.

Role for animal models in understanding essential fatty acid deficiency in cystic fibrosis.

Essential fatty acid deficiency has been observed in most patients with Cystic Fibrosis (CF); however, pancreatic supplementation does not restore the deficiency, suggesting a different pathology independent of the pancreas. At this time, the underlying pathological mechanisms are largely unknown. Essential fatty acids are obtained from the diet and processed by organs including the liver and intestine, two organs significantly impacted by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene (Cftr). There are several CF animal models in a variety of species that have been developed to investigate molecular mechanisms associated with the CF phenotype. Specifically, global and systemic mutations in Cftr which mimic genotypic changes identified in CF patients have been generated in mice, rats, sheep, pigs and ferrets. These mutations produce CFTR proteins with a gating defect, trafficking defect, or an absent or inactive CFTR channel. Essential fatty acids are critical to CFTR function, with a bidirectional relationship between CFTR and essential fatty acids proposed. Currently, there are limited analyses on the essential fatty acid status in most of these animal models. Of interest, in the mouse model, essential fatty acid status is dependent on the genotype and resultant phenotype of the mouse. Future investigations should identify an optimal animal model that has most of the phenotypic changes associated with CF including the essential fatty acid deficiencies, which can be used in the development of therapeutics.

Two NPF transporters mediate iron long-distance transport and homeostasis in Arabidopsis.

Iron (Fe) transport and reallocation are essential to Fe homeostasis in plants, but it is unclear how Fe homeostasis is regulated, especially under stress. Here we report that NPF5.9 and its close homolog NPF5.8 redundantly regulate Fe transport and reallocation in Arabidopsis. NPF5.9 is highly upregulated in response to Fe deficiency. NPF5.9 expresses preferentially in vasculature tissues and localizes to the trans-Golgi network, and NPF5.8 showed a similar expression pattern. Long-distance Fe transport and allocation into aerial parts was significantly increased in NPF5.9-overexpressing lines. In the double mutant npf5.8 npf5.9, Fe loading in aerial parts and plant growth were decreased, which were partially rescued by Fe supplementation. Further analysis showed that expression of PYE, the negative regulator for Fe homeostasis, and its downstream target NAS4 were significantly altered in the double mutant. NPF5.9 and NPF5.8 were shown to also mediate nitrate uptake and transport, although nitrate and Fe application did not reciprocally affect each other. Our findings uncovered the novel function of NPF5.9 and NPF5.8 in long-distance Fe transport and homeostasis, and further indicated that they possibly mediate nitrate transport and Fe homeostasis independently in Arabidopsis.

Molecular architecture of black widow spider neurotoxins.

Latrotoxins (LaTXs) are presynaptic pore-forming neurotoxins found in the venom of Latrodectus spiders. The venom contains a toxic cocktail of seven LaTXs, with one of them targeting vertebrates (α-latrotoxin (α-LTX)), five specialized on insects (α, ß, γ, δ, ε- latroinsectotoxins (LITs), and one on crustaceans (α-latrocrustatoxin (α-LCT)). LaTXs bind to specific receptors on the surface of neuronal cells, inducing the release of neurotransmitters either by directly stimulating exocytosis or by forming Ca2+-conductive tetrameric pores in the membrane. Despite extensive studies in the past decades, a high-resolution structure of a LaTX is not yet available and the precise mechanism of LaTX action remains unclear. Here, we report cryoEM structures of the α-LCT monomer and the δ-LIT dimer. The structures reveal that LaTXs are organized in four domains. A C-terminal domain of ankyrin-like repeats shields a central membrane insertion domain of six parallel α-helices. Both domains are flexibly linked via an N-terminal α-helical domain and a small ß-sheet domain. A comparison between the structures suggests that oligomerization involves major conformational changes in LaTXs with longer C-terminal domains. Based on our data we propose a cyclic mechanism of oligomerization, taking place prior membrane insertion. Both recombinant α-LCT and δ-LIT form channels in artificial membrane bilayers, that are stabilized by Ca2+ ions and allow calcium flux at negative membrane potentials. Our comparative analysis between α-LCT and δ-LIT provides first crucial insights towards understanding the molecular mechanism of the LaTX family.

Late adolescence mortality in mice with brain-specific deletion of the volume-regulated anion channel subunit LRRC8A.

The leucine-rich repeat-containing family 8 member A (LRRC8A) is an essential subunit of the volume-regulated anion channel (VRAC). VRAC is critical for cell volume control, but its broader physiological functions remain under investigation. Recent studies in the field indicate that Lrrc8a disruption in the brain astrocytes reduces neuronal excitability, impairs synaptic plasticity and memory, and protects against cerebral ischemia. In the present work, we generated brain-wide conditional LRRC8A knockout mice (LRRC8A bKO) using NestinCre -driven Lrrc8aflox/flox excision in neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendroglia. LRRC8A bKO animals were born close to the expected Mendelian ratio and developed without overt histological abnormalities, but, surprisingly, all died between 5 and 9 weeks of age with a seizure phenotype, which was confirmed by video and EEG recordings. Brain slice electrophysiology detected changes in the excitability of pyramidal cells and modified GABAergic inputs in the hippocampal CA1 region of LRRC8A bKO. LRRC8A-null hippocampi showed increased immunoreactivity of the astrocytic marker GFAP, indicating reactive astrogliosis. We also found decreased whole-brain protein levels of the GABA transporter GAT-1, the glutamate transporter GLT-1, and the astrocytic enzyme glutamine synthetase. Complementary HPLC assays identified reduction in the tissue levels of the glutamate and GABA precursor glutamine. Together, these findings suggest that VRAC provides vital control of brain excitability in mouse adolescence. VRAC deletion leads to a lethal phenotype involving progressive astrogliosis and dysregulation of astrocytic uptake and supply of amino acid neurotransmitters and their precursors.

Integrated network analysis identifying potential novel drug candidates and targets for Parkinson's disease.

This study aimed to identify potential novel drug candidates and targets for Parkinson's disease. First, 970 genes that have been reported to be related to PD were collected from five databases, and functional enrichment analysis of these genes was conducted to investigate their potential mechanisms. Then, we collected drugs and related targets from DrugBank, narrowed the list by proximity scores and Inverted Gene Set Enrichment analysis of drug targets, and identified potential drug candidates for PD treatment. Finally, we compared the expression distribution of the candidate drug-target genes between the PD group and the control group in the public dataset with the largest sample size (GSE99039) in Gene Expression Omnibus. Ten drugs with an FDR < 0.1 and their corresponding targets were identified. Some target genes of the ten drugs significantly overlapped with PD-related genes or already known therapeutic targets for PD. Nine differentially expressed drug-target genes with p < 0.05 were screened. This work will facilitate further research into the possible efficacy of new drugs for PD and will provide valuable clues for drug design.

Kinetic Process of an Alkaline Earth Metal Ion Transmembrane through ZIF-8.

The confinement effect of biological ion channels regulates the transport of molecules and ions due to angstrom-sized pores. The structure of the potassium channel has a selection region (3-4 Å), a cavity (10 Å), and a gated region, while ZIF-8 has intrinsic pores with a 3.4 Å aperture and an 11.6 Å cavity similar to those of the potassium channel. Inspired by this, we constructed the glass/ZIF-8 hybrid membrane through an electrochemical growth process to explore the kinetics of the ion transmembrane by I-V curves and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. These complementary approaches yield highly correlated results that show that ion transportation of the ZIF-8 membrane follows Arrhenius behavior. The rates of ions are controlled by the transmembrane activation energy, in which the ionic charge and radius play an important role.

Antidiabetic and Renoprotective Effects of Coffea arabica Pulp Aqueous Extract through Preserving Organic Cation Transport System Mediated Oxidative Stress Pathway in Experimental Type 2 Diabetic Rats.

Coffea arabica pulp (CP) is a by-product of coffee processing. CP contains polyphenols that have exhibited beneficial effects, including antioxidant and lipid-lowering effects, as well as enhanced insulin sensitivity, in in vitro and in vivo models. How polyphenols, as found in CP aqueous extract (CPE), affect type 2 diabetes (T2D) has not been investigated. Thus, the present study examined the potential antidiabetic, antioxidant, and renoprotective effects of CPE-rich polyphenols, using an experimental model of T2D in rats induced by a high-fat diet and a single low dose of streptozotocin. The T2D rats received either 1000 mg/kg body weight (BW) of CPE, 30 mg/kg BW of metformin (Met), or a combination treatment (CPE + Met) for 3 months. Plasma parameters, kidney morphology and function, and renal organic transport were determined. Significant hyperglycemia, hypertriglyceridemia, insulin resistance, increased renal lipid content and lipid peroxidation, and morphological kidney changes related to T2D were restored by both CPE and CPE + Met treatments. Additionally, the renal uptake of organic cation, 3H-1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+), was reduced in T2D, while transport was restored by CPE and CPE + Met, through an up-regulation of antioxidant genes and protein kinase Cα deactivation. Thus, CPE has antidiabetic and antioxidant effects that potentially ameliorate kidney function in T2D by preserving renal organic cation transport through an oxidative stress pathway.

Molecular mechanisms of brain water transport.

Our brains consist of 80% water, which is continuously shifted between different compartments and cell types during physiological and pathophysiological processes. Disturbances in brain water homeostasis occur with pathologies such as brain oedema and hydrocephalus, in which fluid accumulation leads to elevated intracranial pressure. Targeted pharmacological treatments do not exist for these conditions owing to our incomplete understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing brain water transport. Historically, the transmembrane movement of brain water was assumed to occur as passive movement of water along the osmotic gradient, greatly accelerated by water channels termed aquaporins. Although aquaporins govern the majority of fluid handling in the kidney, they do not suffice to explain the overall brain water movement: either they are not present in the membranes across which water flows or they appear not to be required for the observed flow of water. Notably, brain fluid can be secreted against an osmotic gradient, suggesting that conventional osmotic water flow may not describe all transmembrane fluid transport in the brain. The cotransport of water is an unconventional molecular mechanism that is introduced in this Review as a missing link to bridge the gap in our understanding of cellular and barrier brain water transport.

Generation of mature and functional hair cells by co-expression of Gfi1, Pou4f3, and Atoh1 in the postnatal mouse cochlea.

The mammalian cochlea cannot regenerate functional hair cells (HCs) spontaneously. Atoh1 overexpression as well as other strategies are unable to generate functional HCs. Here, we simultaneously upregulated the expression of Gfi1, Pou4f3, and Atoh1 in postnatal cochlear supporting cells (SCs) in vivo, which efficiently converted SCs into HCs. The newly regenerated HCs expressed HC markers Myo7a, Calbindin, Parvalbumin, and Ctbp2 and were innervated by neurites. Importantly, many new HCs expressed the mature and terminal marker Prestin or vesicular glutamate transporter 3 (vGlut3), depending on the subtypes of the source SCs. Finally, our patch-clamp analysis showed that the new HCs in the medial region acquired a large K+ current, fired spikes transiently, and exhibited signature refinement of ribbon synapse functions, in close resemblance to native wild-type inner HCs. We demonstrated that co-upregulating Gfi1, Pou4f3, and Atoh1 enhances the efficiency of HC generation and promotes the functional maturation of new HCs.

A multiple ion-uptake phenotyping platform reveals shared mechanisms affecting nutrient uptake by roots.

Nutrient uptake is critical for crop growth and is determined by root foraging in soil. Growth and branching of roots lead to effective root placement to acquire nutrients, but relatively little is known about absorption of nutrients at the root surface from the soil solution. This knowledge gap could be alleviated by understanding sources of genetic variation for short-term nutrient uptake on a root length basis. A modular platform called RhizoFlux was developed for high-throughput phenotyping of multiple ion-uptake rates in maize (Zea mays L.). Using this system, uptake rates were characterized for the crop macronutrients nitrate, ammonium, potassium, phosphate, and sulfate among the Nested Association Mapping (NAM) population founder lines. The data revealed substantial genetic variation for multiple ion-uptake rates in maize. Interestingly, specific nutrient uptake rates (nutrient uptake rate per length of root) were found to be both heritable and distinct from total uptake and plant size. The specific uptake rates of each nutrient were positively correlated with one another and with specific root respiration (root respiration rate per length of root), indicating that uptake is governed by shared mechanisms. We selected maize lines with high and low specific uptake rates and performed an RNA-seq analysis, which identified key regulatory components involved in nutrient uptake. The high-throughput multiple ion-uptake kinetics pipeline will help further our understanding of nutrient uptake, parameterize holistic plant models, and identify breeding targets for crops with more efficient nutrient acquisition.

Reviving mitochondrial bioenergetics: A relevant approach in epilepsy.

Epileptogenesis is most commonly associated with neurodegeneration and a bioenergetic defect attributing to the fact that mitochondrial dysfunction plays a key precursor for neuronal death. Mitochondria are the essential organelle of neuronal cells necessary for certain neurophysiological processes like neuronal action potential activity and synaptic transmission. The mitochondrial dysfunction disrupts calcium homeostasis leading to inhibitory interneuron dysfunction and increasing the excitatory postsynaptic potential. In epilepsy, the prolonged repetitive neuronal activity increases the excessive demand for energy and acidosis in the brain further increasing the intracellular calcium causing neuronal death. Similarly, the mitochondrial damage also leads to the decline of energy by dysfunction of the electron transport chain and abnormal production of the ROS triggering the apoptotic neuronal death. Thus, the elevated level of cytosolic calcium causes the mitochondria DNA damage coinciding with mtROS and releasing the cytochrome c binding to Apaf protein further initiating the apoptosis resulting in epileptic encephalopathies. The various genetic and mRNA studies of epilepsy have explored the various pathogenic mutations of genes affecting the mitochondria functioning further initiating the neuronal excitotoxicity. Based on the results of previous studies, the recent therapeutic approaches are targeting basic mitochondrial processes, such as energy metabolism or free-radical generation, or specific interactions of disease-related proteins with mitochondria and hold great promise to attenuate epileptogenesis. Therefore, the current review emphasizes the emerging insights to uncover the relation between mitochondrial dysfunction and ROS generation contributing to mechanisms underlying epileptic seizures.

Zinc transporters and their functional integration in mammalian cells.

Zinc is a ubiquitous biological metal in all living organisms. The spatiotemporal zinc dynamics in cells provide crucial cellular signaling opportunities, but also challenges for intracellular zinc homeostasis with broad disease implications. Zinc transporters play a central role in regulating cellular zinc balance and subcellular zinc distributions. The discoveries of two complementary families of mammalian zinc transporters (ZnTs and ZIPs) in the mid-1990s spurred much speculation on their metal selectivity and cellular functions. After two decades of research, we have arrived at a biochemical description of zinc transport. However, in vitro functions are fundamentally different from those in living cells, where mammalian zinc transporters are directed to specific subcellular locations, engaged in dedicated macromolecular machineries, and connected with diverse cellular processes. Hence, the molecular functions of individual zinc transporters are reshaped and deeply integrated in cells to promote the utilization of zinc chemistry to perform enzymatic reactions, tune cellular responsiveness to pathophysiologic signals, and safeguard cellular homeostasis. At present, the underlying mechanisms driving the functional integration of mammalian zinc transporters are largely unknown. This knowledge gap has motivated a shift of the research focus from in vitro studies of purified zinc transporters to in cell studies of mammalian zinc transporters in the context of their subcellular locations and protein interactions. In this review, we will outline how knowledge of zinc transporters has been accumulated from in-test-tube to in-cell studies, highlighting new insights and paradigm shifts in our understanding of the molecular and cellular basis of mammalian zinc transporter functions.

P2X7 receptor: a critical regulator and potential target for breast cancer.

Breast cancer is currently the most common cancer and the leading cause of cancer death among women worldwide. Advanced breast cancer is prone to metastasis, and there is currently no drug to cure metastatic breast cancer. The purinergic ligand-gated ion channel 7 receptor is an ATP-gated nonselective cation channel receptor and is involved in signal transduction, growth regulation, cytokine secretion, and tumor cell development. Recent studies have shown that upregulation of the P2X7 receptor in breast cancer can mediate AKT signaling pathways, Ca2 þ-activated SK3 potassium channels, and EMT and regulate the secretion of small extracellular vesicles to promote breast cancer invasion and migration, which are affected by factors such as hypoxia and ATP. In addition, studies have shown that microRNAs can bind to the 3' untranslated region of the P2X7 receptor, which affects the occurrence and development of breast cancer by upregulating and downregulating P2X7 receptor expression. Studies have shown that new P2X7 receptor inhibitors, such as emodin and Uncaria tomentosa, can inhibit P2X7 receptor-mediated breast cancer invasion and are expected to be used clinically. This article reviews the research progress on the relationship between the P2X7 receptor and breast cancer to provide new ideas and a basis for clinical diagnosis and treatment.

Calcium-hydrogen sulfide crosstalk during K+-deficient NaCl stress operates through regulation of Na+/H+ antiport and antioxidative defense system in mung bean roots.

Present investigation reports the role of calcium (Ca2+) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) crosstalk associated with Vigna radiata seedlings subjected to K+ deficient conditions under short-term (24 h) and long-term (72 h) NaCl stress. Perusal of the data reveals that under short-term NaCl stress an initial decline in K+ level led to the elevation in Ca2+ and H2S levels along with improvement in antioxidant system and reduction in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Under long-term NaCl stress a further decline in K+ content was deleterious that led to a lower K+/Na+ ratio. This was followed by reduction in antioxidant system along with excessive accumulation of ROS and methylglyoxal content, and increased membrane damage. However, supplementation of the seedling roots with Ca2+ enhanced biosynthesis of H2S through enhancing cysteine pool. The present findings suggest that synergistic action of Ca2+ and H2S induced the activity of H+-ATPase that created H+ gradient which in turn induced Na+/H+ antiport system that accelerated K+ influx and Na+ efflux. All of these together contributed to a higher K+/Na+ ratio, activation of antioxidative defense system, and maintenance of redox homeostasis and membrane integrity in Ca2+-supplemented stressed seedlings. Role of Ca2+ and H2S in the regulation of Na+/H+ antiport system was validated by the use of sodium orthovanadate (plasma membrane H+-ATPase inhibitor), tetraethylammonium chloride (K+ channel blocker), and amiloride (Na+/H+ antiporter inhibitor). Application of Ca2+-chelator EGTA (ethylene glycol-bis(b-aminoethylether)-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid) and H2S scavenger hypotaurine abolished the effect of Ca2+, suggesting the involvement of Ca2+ and H2S in the alleviation of NaCl stress. Moreover, use of EGTA and HT also substantiates the downstream functioning of H2S during Ca2+-mediated regulation of plant adaptive responses to NaCl stress. To sum up, present findings reveal the association of Ca2+ and H2S signaling in the regulation of ion homeostasis and antioxidant defense during K+-deficient NaCl stress.