First description of the baubellum in the spectacled bear Tremarctos ornatus (Mammalia: Ursidae).

The baubellum (os clitoridis) is a bone found in the clitoris of many female eutherian mammals and is homologous to the baculum in males. In contrast to the baculum, the baubellum has received very little attention regarding its morphological or interspecific diversity, or on hypotheses for its function. The presence of the baubellum in bears (Ursidae) has only been established and mentioned in the literature for the Ursus genus, and not for the other genera of bears. Moreover, no scaled photographs are available for baubella of this clade, and the sizes reported vary between sources. We hereby present and describe the baubellum of a spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus), providing a detailed account of baubella in a basal ursid species. The baubellum of Tremarctos is slightly bowed dorsally, with two small prominences at the distal apex. The length of the Tremarctos baubellum in this study is comparable to that of Ursus americanus (American black bear). We infer the specific shape, with longitudinal ridges, of the baubellum in Tremarctos could indicate a discrete function during copulation or sexual arousal. However, future studies, especially regarding the associated soft tissues, will be required to confirm whether this is indeed the case. Our study expands the understanding of baubella within Ursidae, providing new data (including a three-dimensional model) that can be used to further explore the morphological diversity and function of this enigmatic extra-skeletal bone.

Early Development of Locomotion in the Term Piglet Model: Does Size Matter?

Intrauterine undernutrition in humans typically results in low birth weight ([small for gestational age] SGA) and delayed postnatal neuromotor maturation. Since SGA and intrauterine growth retardation are also common in domestic pigs, piglets are premised as models to study delayed motor development. Applied to the locomotor paradigm, however, questions emerge: (i) how to map the developmental time scale of the precocial model onto the altricial target species and (ii) how to distinguish size from maturation effects? Gait data were collected at self-selected voluntary walking speed during early development (0-96 hours postpartum; pp) for SGA- and normal ([appropriate for gestational age] AGA) piglets. Dimensionless spatiotemporal gait characteristics (according to dynamic similarity) become invariant already after 4 hours pp, suggesting rapid postnatal neuromotor maturation. Moreover, dimensionless gait data are largely identical for SGA- and AGA-siblings, indicating that primarily size effects explain absolute locomotor differences. This is further supported by (i) normalized force-generating capacity of limb muscles, (ii) joint kinematics (<10 hours pp), and (iii) normalized ground reaction forces (<5 days pp) being indifferent between SGA- and AGA- piglets. Furthermore, predictive modeling based on limb joint kinematics is unable to discern the majority of SGA- from AGA-piglets (<10 hours pp). All this leads to the conclusion that, although smaller than the AGA piglets in absolute terms, SGA-piglets mature (neuromechanically speaking) just like, and equally fast as their AGA littermates. Yet, it remains a fact that early SGA piglets are reported to be less mobile, less vital, and less competitive than their AGA siblings (even often die before day 3 pp). This conspicuous difference likely results from the energy level (blood glucose and glycogen) and its mobilization being considerably different between the piglet categories during early development.

A workflow for automatic, high precision livestock diagnostic screening of locomotor kinematics.

Locomotor kinematics have been challenging inputs for automated diagnostic screening of livestock. Locomotion is a highly variable behavior, and influenced by subject characteristics (e.g., body mass, size, age, disease). We assemble a set of methods from different scientific disciplines, composing an automatic, high through-put workflow which can disentangle behavioral complexity and generate precise individual indicators of non-normal behavior for application in diagnostics and research. For this study, piglets (Sus domesticus) were filmed from lateral perspective during their first 10 h of life, an age at which maturation is quick and body mass and size have major consequences for survival. We then apply deep learning methods for point digitization, calculate joint angle profiles, and apply information-preserving transformations to retrieve a multivariate kinematic data set. We train probabilistic models to infer subject characteristics from kinematics. Model accuracy was validated for strides from piglets of normal birth weight (i.e., the category it was trained on), but the models infer the body mass and size of low birth weight (LBW) piglets (which were left out of training, out-of-sample inference) to be "normal." The age of some (but not all) low birth weight individuals was underestimated, indicating developmental delay. Such individuals could be identified automatically, inspected, and treated accordingly. This workflow has potential for automatic, precise screening in livestock management.

From quadrupedal to bipedal walking 'on the fly': the mechanics of dynamical mode transition in primates.

We investigated how baboons transition from quadrupedal to bipedal walking without any significant interruption in their forward movement (i.e. transition 'on the fly'). Building on basic mechanical principles (momentum only changes when external forces/moments act on the body), insights into possible strategies for such a dynamical mode transition are provided and applied first to the recorded planar kinematics of an example walking sequence (including several continuous quadrupedal, transition and subsequent bipedal steps). Body dynamics are calculated from the kinematics. The strategy used in this worked example boils down to: crouch the hind parts and sprint them underneath the rising body centre of mass. Forward accelerations are not in play. Key characteristics of this transition strategy were extracted: progression speed, hip height, step duration (frequency), foot positioning at touchdown with respect to the hip and the body centre of mass (BCoM), and congruity between the moments of the ground reaction force about the BCoM and the rate of change of the total angular moment. Statistical analyses across the full sample (15 transitions of 10 individuals) confirm this strategy is always used and is shared across individuals. Finally, the costs (in J kg-1 m-1) linked to on the fly transitions were estimated. The costs are approximately double those of both the preceding quadrupedal and subsequent bipedal walking. Given the short duration of the transition as such (<1 s), it is argued that the energetic costs to change walking posture on the fly are negligible when considered in the context of the locomotor repertoire.

Peak Muscle and Joint Contact Forces of Running with Increased Duty Factors.

PURPOSE: Running with increased duty factors (DF) has been shown to effectively reduce external forces during running. In this study, we investigated whether running with increased DF (INCR) also reduces internal musculoskeletal loading measures, defined as peak muscle forces, muscle force impulses, and peak joint contact forces compared with a runners' preferred running pattern (PREF). METHOD: Ten subjects were instructed to run with increased DF at 2.1 m·s -1 . Ground reaction forces and three-dimensional kinematics were simultaneously measured. A musculoskeletal model was used to estimate muscle forces based on a dynamic optimization approach, which in turn were used to calculate muscle force impulses and (resultant and three-dimensional) joint contact forces of the ankle, knee, and hip joint during stance. RESULTS: Runners successfully increased their DF from 40.6% to 49.2% on average. This reduced peak muscle forces of muscles that contribute to support during running, i.e., the ankle plantar flexors (-19%), knee extensors (-18%), and hip extensors (-15%). As a consequence, peak joint contact forces of the ankle, knee, and hip joint reduced in the INCR condition. However, several hip flexors generated higher peak muscle forces near the end of stance. CONCLUSIONS: Running with increased DF lowers internal loading measures related to support during stance. Although some swing-related muscles generated higher forces near the end of stance, running with increased DF can be considered as a preventive strategy to reduce the occurrence of running-related injuries, especially in running populations that are prone to overuse injuries.

Preterm Birth Affects Early Motor Development in Pigs.

Background: Preterm infants frequently show neuromotor dysfunctions, but it is not clear how reduced gestational age at birth may induce developmental coordination disorders. Advancing postnatal age, not only post-conceptional age, may determine neuromuscular development, and early interventions in preterm newborns may improve their later motor skills. An animal model of preterm birth that allows early postnatal detection of movement patterns may help to investigate this hypothesis. Methods: Using pigs as a model for moderately preterm infants, preterm (106-day gestation, equivalent to 90% of normal gestation time; n = 38) and term (115-day gestation, equivalent to 99% of normal gestation time; n = 20) individuals were delivered by cesarean section and artificially reared until postnatal day 19 (preweaning period). The neuromotor skills of piglets were documented using spatiotemporal gait analyses on video recordings of locomotion at self-selected speed at postnatal age 3, 4, 5, 8, and 18 days. Results were controlled for effects of body weight and sex. Results: Both preterm and term piglets reached mature neuromotor skills and performance between postnatal days 3-5. However, preterm pigs took shorter steps at a higher frequency, than term piglets, irrespective of their body size. Within preterm pigs, males and low birth weight individuals took the shortest steps, and with the highest frequency. Conclusion: Postnatal development of motor skills and gait characteristics in pigs delivered in late gestation may show similarity to the compromised development of gait pattern in preterm infants. Relative to term pigs, the postnatal delay in gait development in preterm pigs was only few days, that is, much shorter than the 10-day reduction in gestation length. This indicates rapid postnatal adaptation of gait pattern after reduced gestational age at birth. Early-life physical training and medical interventions may support both short- and long-term gait development after preterm birth in both pigs and infants.

The quadrupedal walking gait of the olive baboon, Papio anubis: an exploratory study integrating kinematics and EMG.

Primates exhibit unusual quadrupedal features (e.g. diagonal gaits, compliant walk) compared with other quadrupedal mammals. Their origin and diversification in arboreal habitats have certainly shaped the mechanics of their walking pattern to meet the functional requirements necessary for balance control in unstable and discontinuous environments. In turn, the requirements for mechanical stability probably conflict with mechanical energy exchange. In order to investigate these aspects, we conducted an integrative study on quadrupedal walking in the olive baboon (Papio anubis) at the Primatology station of the CNRS in France. Based on kinematics, we describe the centre of mass mechanics of the normal quadrupedal gait performed on the ground, as well as in different gait and substrate contexts. In addition, we studied the muscular activity of six hindlimb muscles using non-invasive surface probes. Our results show that baboons can rely on an inverted pendulum-like exchange of energy (57% on average, with a maximal observed value of 84%) when walking slowly (<0.9 m s-1) with a tight limb phase (∼55%) on the ground using diagonal sequence gaits. In this context, the muscular activity is similar to that of other quadrupedal mammals, thus reflecting the primary functions of the muscles for limb movement and support. In contrast, walking on a suspended branch generates kinematic and muscular adjustments to ensure better control and to maintain stability. Finally, walking using the lateral sequence gait increases muscular effort and reduces the potential for high recovery rates. The present exploratory study thus supports the assumption that primates are able to make use of an inverted pendulum mechanism on the ground using a diagonal walking gait, yet a different footfall pattern and substrate appear to influence muscular effort and efficiency.

Relationship between duty factor and external forces in slow recreational runners.

OBJECTIVES: Recreational runners show a large interindividual variation in spatiotemporal characteristics. This research focused on slow runners and intended: (1) to document the variance in duty factor (DF) between runners in a real-life running setting and (2) examine whether the interindividual variation in DF and stride frequency (SF) relates to differences in external loading parameters between runners. METHODS: Spatiotemporal characteristics of 23 slow runners (ie, <2.6 m/s) were determined during a 5.2 km running event. To relate the interindividual variation in DF and SF to differences in external forces between runners (maximal vertical ground reaction force (FzMax), peak braking force (PBF) and vertical instantaneous loading rate (VILR)), 14 of them were invited to the lab. They ran at 1.9 m/s on a treadmill while ground reaction forces were recorded. A multiple linear regression analysis was conducted to investigate the effect of DF and SF on external force measures. RESULTS: DF between slow runners varied from 42.50% to 56.49% in a recreational running event. DF was found to be a significant predictor of FzMax (R²=0.755) and PBF (R²=0.430). SF only improved the model for PBF, but to a smaller extent than DF (R² change=0.191). For VILR, neither DF nor SF were significant predictors. CONCLUSION: External forces are lower in recreational runners that run with higher DFs and slightly lower SFs. These findings may be important for injury prevention purposes, especially directed to recreational runners that are more prone to overuse injuries.

Traditional high jump Gusimbuka Urukiramende: Could early 20th century African athletes beat Olympic champions?

During the first half of the 20th century, extraordinary high jumping performances of East-African athletes were observed. These athletes used a specific native jumping style called Gusimbuka Urukiramende. Eye-witnesses believed that these performances could have been world-records and that these athletes could have competed at the Olympics. However, these athletes never participated in international competitions and there is no other proof to support these performance claims. We have analysed historical photos and cine sequences of these jumps, documented the movement analysis of this technique, quantified performance and compared it to contemporaneous elite performances. Our analyses demonstrate that Gusimbuka Urukiramende athletes did not jump as high as the world record. Nevertheless, even though they used a suboptimal jump technique (because they had to lift their bodies higher to cross the bar) they could cross bar heights of 188 cm or 106% body height and as such their performance still was worthy of participation to the Olympics.

Progressive tracking: a novel procedure to facilitate manual digitization of videos.

Digitization of video recordings often requires the laborious procedure of manually clicking points of interest on individual video frames. Here, we present progressive tracking, a procedure that facilitates manual digitization of markerless videos. In contrast to existing software, it allows the user to follow points of interest with a cursor in the progressing video, without the need to click. To compare the performance of progressive tracking with the conventional frame-wise tracking, we quantified speed and accuracy of both methods, testing two different input devices (mouse and stylus pen). We show that progressive tracking can be twice as fast as frame-wise tracking while maintaining accuracy, given that playback speed is controlled. Using a stylus pen can increase frame-wise tracking speed. The complementary application of the progressive and frame-wise mode is exemplified on a realistic video recording. This study reveals that progressive tracking can vastly facilitate video analysis in experimental research.

Technical Note: Correction of geometric x-ray image intensifier distortion based on digital image correlation.

PURPOSE: X-ray image intensifiers (XRIIs) inevitably produce images suffering from geometric distortion. Presently, various local and global methods exist to correct for these distortions. However, the performance of global methods is limited for dominant local distortions, and local methods tend to suffer from patch discontinuity and are generally sensitive to noise. In this paper, a novel local method is presented based on digital image correlation (DIC), which does not suffer from patch discontinuity and noise. METHODS: As DIC is a very accurate and robust technique to analyze deformations, it is our candidate of choice to outperform the existing correction methods. The performance of our technique was first validated through distortion simulations. Next, it was validated experimentally for four different orientations of the XRII. RESULTS: A theoretical study on images suffering from a simulated distortion (including noise and blurring) yielded corrections with an average accuracy of (0.20 ± 0.04) pixels. We obtained experimental data with our 14" XRII (292 mm field of view), suffering from a maximum distortion between 9.6 and 12.9 mm, and an average distortion between (4.4 ± 1.3) mm and (6.1 ± 2.5) mm over the image field for the different orientations. For an adequate choice of the facet size in the DIC analysis (greater than 40 pixels), the weighted mean residual error of our method varied between (0.037 ± 0.003) mm and (0.054 ± 0.003) mm, regardless of the XRII orientation. The maximum residual error varied between 0.081 and 0.185 mm. CONCLUSIONS: From the simulations, we concluded that the proposed technique is affected by neither Gaussian noise nor blurring. Furthermore, it is shown that our method can reach an accuracy that is on par with or better than the current standard tools. The novel method is fast, requires minimal operator intervention and can be fully automated.

Glucose and glycogen levels in piglets that differ in birth weight and vitality.

In the pig, intrauterine crowding can greatly affect postnatal characteristics, among which birth weight and locomotion. In a previous study, we discovered that piglets with a low birth weight/low vitality (L piglets) have a reduced motor performance compared to piglets with a normal birth weight/normal vitality (N piglets). A possible explanation is that L piglets lack the energy to increase their motor performance to the level of that of N piglets. Blood glucose levels (GLU) and glycogen concentrations in skeletal muscle of the front (GLYFRONT) and hind leg (GLYHIND) and the liver (GLYLIVER) at birth and during the first 96 h postpartum were compared between L and N piglets. GLU at birth was the same for both groups. After birth, GLU immediately increased in N piglets, whereas it only increased after 8 h in L piglets. L piglets showed a lower GLYHIND at birth and did not use this glycogen during the first 8 h postpartum, while N piglets showed a gradual depletion. GLYLIVER at birth was 50% lower for L piglets and was unused during the studied period while N piglets consumed half of their GLYLIVER during the first 8 h. Based on these results, it is possible that lower glycogen concentrations at birth, the delayed increase in GLU and the lower use of glycogen during the first 8 h after birth negatively affect motor performance in L piglets. However, based on this study, it is unclear whether the low mobilization of glycogen by L piglets is a consequence, rather than a cause of their lower motor performance.

Small vertebrates running on uneven terrain: a biomechanical study of two differently specialised lacertid lizards.

While running, small animals frequently encounter large terrain variations relative to their body size, therefore, terrain variations impose important functional demands on small animals. Nonetheless, we have previously observed in lizards that running specialists can maintain a surprisingly good running performance on very uneven terrains. The relatively large terrain variations are offset by their capacity for leg adjustability that ensures a 'smooth ride' of the centre of mass (CoM). The question as to how the effect of an uneven terrain on running performance and locomotor costs differs between species exhibiting diverse body build and locomotor specializations remains. We hypothesise that specialized runners with long hind limbs can cross uneven terrain more efficiently than specialized climbers with a dorso-ventrally flattened body and equally short fore and hind limbs. This study reports 3D kinematics using high-speed videos (325 Hz) to investigate leg adjustability and CoM movements in two lacertid lizards (Acanthodactylus boskianus, running specialist; Podarcis muralis, climbing specialist). We investigated these parameters while the animals were running on a level surface and over a custom-made uneven terrain. We analysed the CoM dynamics, we evaluated the fluctuations of the positive and negative mechanical energy, and we estimated the overall cost of transport. Firstly, the results reveal that the climbers ran at lower speeds on flat level terrain but had the same cost of transport as the runners. Secondly, contrary to the running specialists, the speed was lower and the energy expenditure higher in the climbing specialists while running on uneven terrain. While leg movements adjust to the substrates' variations and enhance the stability of the CoM in the running specialist, this is not the case in the climbing specialist. Although their legs are kept more extended, the amplitude of movement does not change, resulting in an increase of the movement of the CoM and a decrease in locomotor efficiency. These results are discussed in light of the respective (micro-)habitat of these species and suggest that energy economy can also be an important factor for small vertebrates.

Does intrauterine crowding affect the force generating capacity and muscle composition of the piglet front limb?

In the pig, intrauterine competition (IUC) greatly affects postnatal traits, such as birth weight, but also locomotor capacities. In a previous study, our group discovered a lower motor performance in piglets with a low birth weight and low vitality (L piglets), compared to piglets with a normal birth weight and normal vitality (N piglets). In order to explain the force deficit causing this reduced motor performance, in a subsequent study, we investigated whether this deficit in L piglets was caused by a lower force generating capacity (FGC) of the extensors of the hind limb and/or a lower number of type II (fast-twitch) fibers in m. vastus lateralis. L piglets had a lower absolute FGC, but surprisingly, a higher relative FGC (to birth weight) in the hind limb, compared to N piglets. In addition, we found no differences in fiber composition of m. vastus lateralis. In the present study, we assessed whether this higher relative FGC is a common feature for front and hind limb locomotor muscles of L piglets. To that end, the physiological cross-sectional area of the main extensor muscles of the front limb was calculated from their volume and fiber length, in order to calculate both the absolute and the relative FGC. By immunohistochemical staining of m. triceps brachii caput longum, the percentage of type II (fast-contracting) fibers could be determined. Similar to the results of the hind limb, we found a smaller absolute FGC, but a larger relative FGC in the front limb of L piglets, compared to N piglets. In addition, m. triceps brachii caput longum did not have a different muscle fiber composition in L and N piglets. As such, we can conclude that IUC affects the locomotor muscles in the front and hind limb in a similar way and that the observed force deficit in L piglets cannot be explained by a different force generating capacity or a lower percentage of type II muscle fibers.

Habitat use and vestibular system's dimensions in lacertid lizards.

The vestibular system is crucial for movement control during locomotion. As the dimensions of the vestibular system determine the fluid dynamics of the endolymph and, as such, the system's function, we investigate the interaction between vestibular system size, head size and microhabitat use in lizards. We grouped 24 lacertid species in three microhabitat types, we acquired three-dimensional models of the bony vestibular systems using micro-computer tomography scanning, and we performed linear and surface measurements. All vestibular measurements scale with a negative allometry with head size, suggesting that smaller heads house disproportionally large ears. As the sensitivity of the vestibular system is positively related to size, a sufficiently large vestibular system in small-headed animals may meet the sensitivity demands during challenged locomotion. We also found that the microhabitat affects the locomotor dynamics: lizards inhabiting open microhabitats run at higher dimensionless speeds. On the other hand, no statistical relationship exists between dimensionless speed and the vestibular system dimensions. Hence, if the vestibular size would differ between microhabitats, this would be a direct effect (i.e. imposed, for instance, by requirements for manoeuvring, balance control, etc.), rather than depending on the lizards' intrinsic running speed. However, we found no effect of the microhabitat on the allometric relationship between head and vestibular system size. The finding that microhabitat is not reflected in the vestibular system size (hence sensitivity) of the lacertids in this study is possibly due to spatial constraints of the skull.

Orientation and location of the finite helical axis of the equine forelimb joints.

To reduce anatomically unrealistic limb postures in a virtual musculoskeletal model of a horse's forelimb, accurate knowledge on forelimb joint constraints is essential. The aim of this cadaver study is to report all orientation and position changes of the finite helical axes (FHA) as a function of joint angle for different equine forelimb joints. Five horse cadaver forelimbs with standardized cuts at the midlevel of each segment were used. Bone pins with reflective marker triads were drilled into the forelimb bones. Unless joint angles were anatomically coupled, each joint was manually moved independently in all three rotational degrees of freedom (flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, internal-external rotation). The 3D coordinates of the marker triads were recorded using a six infra-red camera system. The FHA and its orientational and positional properties were calculated and expressed against joint angle over the entire range of motion using a finite helical axis method. When coupled, joint angles and FHA were expressed in function of flexion-extension angle. Flexion-extension movement was substantial in all forelimb joints, the shoulder allowed additional considerable motion in all three rotational degrees of freedoms. The position of the FHA was constant in the fetlock and elbow and a constant orientation of the FHA was found in the shoulder. Orientation and position changes of the FHA over the entire range of motion were observed in the carpus and the interphalangeal joints. We report FHA position and orientation changes as a function of flexion-extension angle to allow for inclusion in a musculoskeletal model of a horse to minimize calculation errors caused by incorrect location of the FHA.

Compliant legs enable lizards to maintain high running speeds on complex terrains.

Substrate variations are likely to constrain animal performance in natural environments, as running over complex terrains challenges the dynamic stability of the body differently in each step. Yet, being able to negotiate complex terrains at top speed is a strong advantage for animals that have to deal with predators and evasive prey. Little is known on how animals negotiate such terrain variability at high speed. We investigated this in fast-running Acanthodactylus boskianus lizards, by measuring their 3D kinematics using four synchronised high-speed video cameras (325 Hz) on an adaptable racetrack. This racetrack was covered with four different substrates, representing increasing levels of terrain complexity. We found that the lizards deal with this complexity gradient by gradually adopting more erect parasagittal leg postures. Legs in a more-erect position are more compliant and are therefore highly adjustable on complex terrains. Additionally, the lizards stabilise their head, which facilitates vestibular and visual perception. Together, compliant legs and head stabilisation enable the lizards to minimise movements of the body centre of mass, even when running on highly irregular terrains. This suggests that the head and the centre of mass are the priority targets for running on uneven terrains. As a result, running performance (mean forward speed) decreases only slightly, and only on the most challenging substrate under investigation.

Grounded Running Reduces Musculoskeletal Loading.

PURPOSE: Recent observations demonstrate that a sizeable proportion of the recreational running population runs at rather slow speeds and does not always show a clear flight phase. This study determined the key biomechanical and physiological characteristics of this running pattern, i.e., grounded running (GR), and compared these characteristics with slow aerial running (SAR) and reference data on walking at the same slow running speed. METHODS: Thirty male subjects performed instructed GR and SAR at 2.10 m·s on a treadmill. Ground reaction forces, tibial accelerations, and metabolic rate were measured to estimate general musculoskeletal loading (external power and maximal vertical ground reaction force), impact intensity (vertical instantaneous loading rate and tibial acceleration), and energy expenditure. More explicit measures of muscular loading (muscle stresses and peak eccentric power) were calculated based on a representative subsample, in which detailed kinematics and kinetics were recorded. We hypothesized that all measures would be lower for the GR condition. RESULTS: Subjects successfully altered their running pattern upon a simple instruction toward a GR pattern by increasing their duty factor from 41.5% to 51.2%. As hypothesized, impact intensity, general measures for musculoskeletal, and the more explicit measures for muscular loading decreased by up to 35.0%, 20.3%, and 34.0%, respectively, compared with SAR. Contrary to our hypothesis, metabolic rate showed an increase of 4.8%. CONCLUSIONS: Changing running style from SAR to GR reduces musculoskeletal loading without lowering the metabolic energy requirements. As such, GR might be beneficial for most runners as it has the potential to reduce the risk of running-related injuries while remaining a moderate to vigorous form of physical activity, contributing to fulfillment of the recommendations concerning physical activity and public health.

The effect of single-ossicle ear flexibility and eardrum cone orientation on quasi-static behavior of the chicken middle ear.

In the single-ossicle ear of chickens, the quasi-static displacement of the umbo shows great asymmetry; umbo displacements are much larger for negative than for positive pressure in the middle ear, which is opposite to the typical asymmetry observed in mammal ears. To better understand this behavior, a finite-element model was created of the static response of the chicken middle ear. The role of flexibility of the extracolumella in the model was investigated, and the potential effect of the outward orientation of the tympanic-membrane cone was studied by building two adapted models with a flat membrane and an inverted conical membrane. It is found that the extracolumella must be made of flexible material to explain the large inward displacements of the umbo, and that displacements of the footplate are much smaller due to bending of the flexible extracolumella. However, increasing extracolumellar stiffness mostly reduces umbo displacement rather than increasing footplate displacement. The results suggest that the inverted orientation of the membrane cone is responsible for the change in asymmetry of the umbo displacement curve. The asymmetry of the footplate displacement curve in the normal model is smaller, but increases towards positive middle-ear pressure in the case of a flat or inverted membrane geometry.

How does intrauterine crowding affect locomotor performance in newborn pigs? A study of force generating capacity and muscle composition of the hind limb.

Intrauterine crowding (IUC) considerably influences postnatal traits in a polytocous species such as the pig. Previously, our group described how IUC affects locomotion during the piglet's first days of life (until 96 h after birth). We noted a reduced motor performance in piglets with a low birth weight and low vitality (L piglets), compared to piglets with a normal birth weight and normal vitality (N piglets), indicating L piglets are unable to produce enough force. Our current study investigates whether this observed force deficit in L piglets is caused by a reduced force generating capacity in the muscles and/or a lower percentage of type II (fast-contracting) fibers. Volume and fiber length of the main extensor muscles of the hind limb were used to estimate the physiological cross-sectional area (PSCA) and hence calculate the maximal isometric force generating capacity (Fiso-max) of the hind limb. To check for developmental differences between the muscles of L and N piglets, Fiso-max was normalized to body weight (BW), thus yielding a dimensionless variable F'iso-max. To check for differences in muscle composition, m. vastus lateralis was stained immunohistochemically in order to determine the percentage of type II fibers through image analysis. Our results indicate that L piglets have a reduced absolute force generating capacity due to a lesser muscle mass, compared to N piglets. However, when normalized to BW L piglets actually show a larger force generating capacity, suggesting their muscles are more voluminous, given their body mass, than those of N piglets. However, no differences between L and N piglets were detected with regard to muscle composition of the m. vastus lateralis. Based on our data, we can say that neither normalized force generating capacity, nor muscle composition (of the m. vastus lateralis) can explain the observed force deficit in L piglets and as such the effect of IUC on locomotor performance.