Form Factors and Two-Photon Exchange in High-Energy Elastic Electron-Proton Scattering.

We present new precision measurements of the elastic electron-proton scattering cross section for momentum transfer (Q^{2}) up to 15.75 (GeV/c)^{2}. Combined with existing data, these provide an improved extraction of the proton magnetic form factor at high Q^{2} and double the range over which a longitudinal or transverse separation of the cross section can be performed. The difference between our results and polarization data agrees with that observed at lower Q^{2} and attributed to hard two-photon exchange (TPE) effects, extending to 8 (GeV/c)^{2} the range of Q^{2} for which a discrepancy is established at >95% confidence. We use the discrepancy to quantify the size of TPE contributions needed to explain the cross section at high Q^{2}.

The entry machinery of flaviviruses.

We have been using the flavivirus tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) as a model system for investigating the molecular mechanisms underlying the membrane fusion process mediated by a class II viral fusion protein, the flavivirus envelope protein E. In the mature virion this protein exists as a metastable dimer that dissociates at the acidic pH in endosomes and is converted into a more stable trimeric conformation. The dimer dissociation step liberates an internal fusion peptide that interacts with the target endosomal membrane, and then further conformational changes are believed to drive membrane fusion. Although flavivirus fusion appears to be a more facile and efficient process than that of alphaviruses, which also possess a class II viral fusion protein, the fusion mechanism in both viral systems involves structurally related interactions with lipids, specifically the 3beta-hydroxyl group at C3 of cholesterol. The class II viral fusion machineries are structurally different from those involving class I viral fusion proteins, such as those found in orthomyxoviruses, paramyxoviruses, retroviruses, and filoviruses, but have certain similarities in common with bacterial pore-forming proteins.

The machinery for flavivirus fusion with host cell membranes.

A combination of structural, biochemical and functional studies with the flavivirus tick-borne encephalitis virus has revealed the characteristics of a new class of viral fusion protein, class II, that is unrelated to the class I viral fusion proteins for which influenza virus hemagglutinin is the prototype. New structural data have shown that the alphaviruses, another group of icosahedral enveloped viruses, also have class II fusion proteins, suggesting a common origin.

Role of metastability and acidic pH in membrane fusion by tick-borne encephalitis virus.

The envelope protein E of the flavivirus tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus is, like the alphavirus E1 protein, a class II viral fusion protein that differs structurally and probably mechanistically from class I viral fusion proteins. The surface of the native TBE virion is covered by an icosahedrally symmetrical network of E homodimers, which mediate low-pH-induced fusion in endosomes. At the pH of fusion, the E homodimers are irreversibly converted to a homotrimeric form, which we have found by intrinsic fluorescence measurements to be more stable than the native dimers. Thus, the TBE virus E protein is analogous to the prototypical class I fusion protein, the influenza virus hemagglutinin (HA), in that it is initially synthesized in a metastable state that is energetically poised to be converted to the fusogenic state by exposure to low pH. However, in contrast to what has been observed with influenza virus HA, this transition could not be triggered by input of heat energy alone and membrane fusion could be induced only when the virus was exposed to an acidic pH. In a previous study we showed that the dimer-to-trimer transition appears to be a two-step process involving a reversible dissociation of the dimer followed by an irreversible trimerization of the dissociated monomeric subunits. Because the dimer-monomer equilibrium in the first step apparently depends on the protonation state of E, the lack of availability of monomers for the trimerization step at neutral pH could explain why low pH is essential for fusion in spite of the metastability of the native E dimer.

Molecular organization of a recombinant subviral particle from tick-borne encephalitis virus.

The tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) flavivirus contains two transmembrane proteins, E and M. Coexpression of E and the M precursor (prM) leads to secretion of recombinant subviral particles (RSPs). In the most common form of these RSPs, analyzed at a 19 A resolution by cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), 60 copies of E pack as dimers in a T = 1 icosahedral surface lattice (outer diameter, 315 A). Fitting the high-resolution structure of a soluble E fragment into the RSP density defines interaction sites between E dimers, positions M relative to E, and allows assignment of transmembrane regions of E and M. Lateral interactions among the glycoproteins stabilize this capsidless particle; similar interactions probably contribute to assembly of virions. The structure suggests a picture for trimer association under fusion-inducing conditions.

Adaptation of tick-borne encephalitis virus to BHK-21 cells results in the formation of multiple heparan sulfate binding sites in the envelope protein and attenuation in vivo.

Propagation of the flavivirus tick-borne encephalitis virus in BHK-21 cells selected for mutations within the large surface glycoprotein E that increased the net positive charge of the protein. In the course of 16 independent experiments, 12 different protein E mutation patterns were identified. These were located in all three of the structural domains and distributed over almost the entire upper and lateral surface of protein E. The mutations resulted in the formation of local patches of predominantly positive surface charge. Recombinant viruses carrying some of these mutations in a defined genetic backbone showed heparan sulfate (HS)-dependent phenotypes, resulting in an increased specific infectivity and binding affinity for BHK-21 cells, small plaque formation in porcine kidney cells, and significant attenuation of neuroinvasiveness in adult mice. Our results corroborate the notion that the selection of attenuated HS binding mutants is a common and frequent phenomenon during the propagation of viruses in cell culture and suggest a major role for HS dependence in flavivirus attenuation. Recognition of this principle may be of practical value for designing attenuated flavivirus strains in the future.

Mutational evidence for an internal fusion peptide in flavivirus envelope protein E.

The envelope protein E of the flavivirus tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus promotes cell entry by inducing fusion of the viral membrane with an intracellular membrane after uptake by endocytosis. This protein differs from other well-studied viral and cellular fusion proteins because of its distinct molecular architecture and apparent lack of involvement of coiled coils in the low-pH-induced structural transitions that lead to fusion. A highly conserved loop (the cd loop), which resides at the distal tip of each subunit and is mostly buried in the subunit interface of the native E homodimer at neutral pH, has been hypothesized to function as an internal fusion peptide at low pH, but this has not yet been shown experimentally. It was predicted by examination of the X-ray crystal structure of the TBE virus E protein (F. A. Rey et al., Nature 375:291-298, 1995) that mutations at a specific residue within this loop (Leu 107) would not cause the native structure to be disrupted. We therefore introduced amino acid substitutions at this position and, using recombinant subviral particles, investigated the effects of these changes on fusion and related properties. Replacement of Leu with hydrophilic amino acids strongly impaired (Thr) or abolished (Asp) fusion activity, whereas a Phe mutant still retained a significant degree of fusion activity. Liposome coflotation experiments showed that the fusion-negative Asp mutant did not form a stable interaction with membranes at low pH, although it was still capable of undergoing the structural rearrangements required for fusion. These data support the hypothesis that the cd loop may be directly involved in interactions with target membranes during fusion.

Attenuation of tick-borne encephalitis virus by structure-based site-specific mutagenesis of a putative flavivirus receptor binding site.

The impact of a specific region of the envelope protein E of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus on the biology of this virus was investigated by a site-directed mutagenesis approach. The four amino acid residues that were analyzed in detail (E308 to E311) are located on the upper-lateral surface of domain III according to the X-ray structure of the TBE virus protein E and are part of an area that is considered to be a potential receptor binding determinant of flaviviruses. Mutants containing single amino acid substitutions, as well as combinations of mutations, were constructed and analyzed for their virulence in mice, growth properties in cultured cells, and genetic stability. The most significant attenuation in mice was achieved by mutagenesis of threonine 310. Combining this mutation with deletion mutations in the 3'-noncoding region yielded mutants that were highly attenuated. The biological effects of mutation Thr 310 to Lys, however, could be reversed to a large degree by a mutation at a neighboring position (Lys 311 to Glu) that arose spontaneously during infection of a mouse. Mutagenesis of the other positions provided evidence for the functional importance of residue 308 (Asp) and its charge interaction with residue 311 (Lys), whereas residue 309 could be altered or even deleted without any notable consequences. Deletion of residue 309 was accompanied by a spontaneous second-site mutation (Phe to Tyr) at position 332, which in the three-dimensional structure of protein E is spatially close to residue 309. The information obtained in this study is relevant for the development of specific attenuated flavivirus strains that may serve as future live vaccines.

Membrane fusion activity of tick-borne encephalitis virus and recombinant subviral particles in a liposomal model system.

We present a kinetic analysis of the membrane fusion activity of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus and TBE-derived recombinant subviral particles (RSPs) in a liposomal model system. Fusion was monitored using a fluorescence assay involving pyrene-labeled phospholipids. Fusion was strictly dependent on low pH, with the optimum being at pH 5.3-5.5 and the threshold at pH 6.8. Fusion did not require a protein or carbohydrate receptor in the target liposomes. Preexposure to low pH of the virus alone resulted in inactivation of its fusion activity. At the optimum pH for fusion and 37 degrees C, the rate and extent of fusion were very high, with more than 50% of the virus fusing within 2 s and the final extent of fusion being 70%. Lowering of the temperature did not result in a significant decrease in the rate and extent of fusion, suggesting that TBE virus fusion is a facile process with a low activation energy, possibly due to the flat orientation of the E glycoprotein on the viral surface facilitating the establishment of direct intermembrane contact. The fusion characteristics of TBE virus and RSPs were similar, indicating that RSPs provide a reliable and convenient model for further study of the membrane fusion properties of TBE virus.

A DNA immunization model study with constructs expressing the tick-borne encephalitis virus envelope protein E in different physical forms.

We have conducted a DNA immunization study to evaluate how the immune response is influenced by the physical structure and secretion of the expressed Ag. For this purpose, we used a series of plasmid constructs encoding different forms of the envelope glycoprotein E of the flavivirus tick-borne encephalitis virus. These included a secreted recombinant subviral particle, a secreted carboxyl-terminally truncated soluble homodimer, a nonsecreted full-length form, and an inefficiently secreted truncated form. Mice were immunized using both i.m. injection and Gene Gun-mediated application of plasmids. The functional immune response was evaluated by determining specific neutralizing and hemagglutination-inhibiting Ab activities and by challenging the mice with a lethal dose of the virus. As a measure for the induction of a Th1 and/or Th2 response, we determined specific IgG subclasses and examined IFN-gamma, Il-4, and Il-5 induction. The plasmid construct encoding a secreted subviral particle, which carries multiple copies of the protective Ag on its surface, was superior to the other constructs in terms of extent and functionality of the Ab response as well as protection against virus challenge. As expected, the type of Th response was largely dependent on the mode of application (i.m. vs Gene Gun), but our data show that it was also strongly influenced by the properties of the Ag. Most significantly, the plasmid encoding the particulate form was able to partially overcome the Th2 bias imposed by the Gene Gun, resulting in a balanced Th1/Th2 response.

Mapping of functional elements in the stem-anchor region of tick-borne encephalitis virus envelope protein E.

Envelope protein E of the flavivirus tick-borne encephalitis virus mediates membrane fusion, and the structure of the N-terminal 80% of this 496-amino-acid-long protein has been shown to differ significantly from that of other viral fusion proteins. The structure of the carboxy-terminal 20%, the stem-anchor region, is not known. It contains sequences that are important for membrane anchoring, interactions with prM (the precursor of membrane protein M) during virion assembly, and low-pH-induced structural changes associated with the fusion process. To identify specific functional elements in this region, a series of C-terminal deletion mutants were constructed and the properties of the resulting truncated recombinant E proteins were examined. Full-length E proteins and proteins lacking the second of two predicted transmembrane segments were secreted in a particulate form when coexpressed with prM, whereas deletion of both segments resulted in the secretion of soluble homodimeric E proteins. Sites located within a predicted alpha-helical region of the stem (amino acids 431 to 449) and the first membrane-spanning region (amino acids 450 to 472) were found to be important for the stability of the prM-E heterodimer but not essential for prM-mediated intracellular transport and secretion of soluble E proteins. A separate site in the stem, also corresponding to a predicted alpha-helix (amino acids 401 to 413), was essential for the conversion of soluble protein E dimers to a homotrimeric form upon low-pH treatment, a process resembling the transition to the fusogenic state in whole virions. This functional mapping will aid in the understanding of the molecular mechanisms of membrane fusion and virus assembly.

Sequence analysis and genetic classification of tick-borne encephalitis viruses from Europe and Asia.

The epidemiology of tick-borne encephalitis virus was investigated by comparative sequence analysis of virus strains isolated in endemic areas of Europe and Asia. Phylogenetic relationships were determined from the nucleotide and amino acid sequences of the major envelope (E) protein of 16 newly sequenced strains and nine previously published sequences. Three genetic lineages could be clearly distinguished, corresponding to a European, a Far Eastern and a Siberian subtype. Amino acids characteristic for each of the subtypes ('signature' amino a cids) were identified and their location in the atomic structure of protein E was determined. The degree of variation between strains within subtypes was low and exhibited a maximum of only 2.2% at the amino acid level. A maximum difference of 5.6% was found between the three subtypes, which is in the range of variation reported for other flaviviruses.

In vitro-synthesized infectious RNA as an attenuated live vaccine in a flavivirus model.

Live virus vaccines have in many cases proven to be an extremely effective tool for the prevention of viral diseases. However, the production of conventional live vaccines in eukaryotic cell cultures has many disadvantages, including the potential for contamination with adventitious agents and genetic alterations during propagation, making it necessary to do extensive testing before distribution. Based on results obtained with a flavivirus (tick-borne encephalitis virus) in an experimental animal system, we propose a novel live attenuated virus vaccination strategy consisting of the application of in vitro-synthesized infectious RNA instead of the live virus itself. When administered using the GeneGun, less than 1 ng of RNA was required to initiate replication of virus that was attenuated by a specifically engineered deletion and this induced a protective immunity in laboratory mice. Because this approach uses RNA, it does not have the potential drawbacks of DNA vaccines and thus combines the advantages of conventional live virus vaccines (for example, mimicking natural infection and inducing long-lasting immunity) with those of nucleic acid-based vaccines (for example, ease of production without a requirement for eukaryotic cell culture, stability and purity).

Spontaneous and engineered deletions in the 3' noncoding region of tick-borne encephalitis virus: construction of highly attenuated mutants of a flavivirus.

The flavivirus genome is a positive-strand RNA molecule containing a single long open reading frame flanked by noncoding regions (NCR) that mediate crucial processes of the viral life cycle. The 3' NCR of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus can be divided into a variable region that is highly heterogeneous in length among strains of TBE virus and in certain cases includes an internal poly(A) tract and a 3'-terminal conserved core element that is believed to fold as a whole into a well-defined secondary structure. We have now investigated the genetic stability of the TBE virus 3' NCR and its influence on viral growth properties and virulence. We observed spontaneous deletions in the variable region during growth of TBE virus in cell culture and in mice. These deletions varied in size and location but always included the internal poly(A) element of the TBE virus 3' NCR and never extended into the conserved 3'-terminal core element. Subsequently, we constructed specific deletion mutants by using infectious cDNA clones with the entire variable region and increasing segments of the core element removed. A virus mutant lacking the entire variable region was indistinguishable from wild-type virus with respect to cell culture growth properties and virulence in the mouse model. In contrast, even small extensions of the deletion into the core element led to significant biological effects. Deletions extending to nucleotides 10826, 10847, and 10870 caused distinct attenuation in mice without measurable reduction of cell culture growth properties, which, however, were significantly restricted when the deletion was extended to nucleotide 10919. An even larger deletion (to nucleotide 10994) abolished viral viability. In spite of their high degree of attenuation, these mutants efficiently induced protective immune responses even at low inoculation doses. Thus, 3'-NCR deletions represent a useful technique for achieving stable attenuation of flaviviruses that can be included in the rational design of novel flavivirus live vaccines.

Proteolytic activation of tick-borne encephalitis virus by furin.

Flaviviruses are assembled intracellularly in an immature form containing heterodimers of two envelope proteins, E and prM. Shortly before the virion exits the cell, prM is cleaved by a cellular enzyme, and this processing step can be blocked by treatment with agents that raise the pH of exocytic compartments. We carried out in vivo and in vitro studies with tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus to investigate the possible role of furin in this process as well as the functional consequences of prM cleavage. We found that prM in immature virions can be correctly cleaved in vitro by recombinant bovine furin but that efficient cleavage occurs only after exposure of the virion to mildly acidic pH. The data suggest that exposure to an acidic environment induces an irreversible structural change that renders the cleavage site accessible to the enzyme. Cleavage by furin in vitro resulted in biological activation, as shown by a 100-fold increase in specific infectivity, the acquisition of membrane fusion and hemagglutination activity, and the ability of the envelope proteins to undergo low-pH-induced structural rearrangements characteristic of mature virions. In vivo, prM cleavage was blocked by a furin inhibitor, and infection of the furin-deficient cell line LoVo yielded only immature virions, suggesting that furin is essential for cleavage activation of flaviviruses.

Structural requirements for low-pH-induced rearrangements in the envelope glycoprotein of tick-borne encephalitis virus.

The exposure of the flavivirus tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus to an acidic pH is necessary for virus-induced membrane fusion and leads to a quantitative and irreversible conversion of the envelope protein E dimers to trimers. To study the structural requirements for this oligomeric rearrangement, the effect of low-pH treatment on the oligomeric state of different isolated forms of protein E was investigated. Full-length E dimers obtained by solubilization of virus with the detergent Triton X-100 formed trimers at low pH, whereas truncated E dimers lacking the stem-anchor region underwent a reversible dissociation into monomers without forming trimers. These data suggest that the low-pH-induced rearrangement in virions is a two-step process involving a reversible dissociation of the E dimers followed by an irreversible formation of trimers, a process which requires the stem-anchor portion of the protein. This region contains potential amphipathic alpha-helical and conserved structural elements whose interactions may contribute to the rearrangements which initiate the fusion process.

Recombinant subviral particles from tick-borne encephalitis virus are fusogenic and provide a model system for studying flavivirus envelope glycoprotein functions.

Recombinant subviral particles (RSPs) obtained by coexpression of the envelope (E) and premembrane (prM) proteins of tick-borne encephalitis virus in COS cells (S. L. Allison, K. Stadler, C. W. Mandl, C. Kunz, and F. X. Heinz, J. Virol. 69:5816-5820, 1995) were extensively characterized and shown to be ordered structures containing envelope glycoproteins with structural and functional properties very similar to those in the virion envelope. The particles were spherical, with a diameter of about 30 nm and a buoyant density of 1.14 g/cm3 in sucrose gradients. They contained mature E proteins with endoglycosidase H-resistant glycans as well as fully cleaved mature M proteins. Cleavage of prM, which requires an acidic pH in exocytic compartments, could be inhibited by treatment of transfected cells with ammonium chloride, implying a common maturation pathway for RSPs and virions. RSPs incorporated [14C]choline but not [3H]uridine, demonstrating that they contain lipid but probably lack nucleic acid. The envelope proteins of RSPs exhibited a native antigenic and oligomeric structure compared with virions, and incubation at an acidic pH (pH <6.5) induced identical conformational changes and structural rearrangements, including an irreversible quantitative conversion of dimers to trimers. The RSPs were also shown to be functionally active, inducing membrane fusion in a low-pH-dependent manner and demonstrating the same specific hemagglutination activity as whole virions. Tick-borne encephalitis virus RSPs thus represent an excellent model system for investigating the structural basis of viral envelope glycoprotein functions.

Recombinant and virion-derived soluble and particulate immunogens for vaccination against tick-borne encephalitis.

Using different forms of the envelope glycoprotein E from tick-borne encephalitis virus we investigated the influence of physical and antigenic structure on the efficacy of vaccination. Different protein E-containing preparations were either derived from purified virions or were produced as recombinant proteins in COS cells. These included soluble dimeric forms (virion-derived protein E dimers with and without membrane anchor; recombinant protein E dimers without membrane anchor), micellar aggregates of protein E (rosettes), and recombinant subviral particles (RSPs). The structural differences between these immunogens were verified by sedimentation analysis, immunoblotting and epitope mapping with a panel of monoclonal antibodies. Specific immunogenicities were determined in mice in comparison to formalin-inactivated whole virus. Rosettes and RSPs were excellent immunogens and exhibited similar efficacies as inactivated virus in terms of antibody induction and protection against challenge, whereas all of the soluble forms were much less immunogenic. These data emphasize the importance of the immunogen's antigenic and physical structure for an effective stimulation of the immune system and indicate that RSPs represent an excellent candidate for a recombinant vaccine against tick-borne encephalitis.

Synthesis and secretion of recombinant tick-borne encephalitis virus protein E in soluble and particulate form.

A quantitative study was performed to investigate the requirements for secretion of recombinant soluble and particulate forms of the envelope glycoprotein E of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) virus. Full-length E and a carboxy terminally truncated anchor-free form were expressed in COS cells in the presence and absence of prM, the precursor of the viral membrane protein M. Formation of a heteromeric complex with prM was found to be necessary for efficient secretion of both forms of E, whereas only low levels of anchor-free E were secreted in the absence of prM. The prM-mediated transport function could also be provided by coexpression of prM and E from separate constructs, but a prM-to-E ratio of greater than 1:1 did not further enhance secretion. Full-length E formed stable intracellular heterodimers with prM and was secreted as a subviral particle, whereas anchor-free E was not associated with particles and formed a less stable complex with prM, suggesting that prM interacts with both the ectodomain and anchor region of E.