Black boys unchained: Removing the constraints of racial disparities in discipline at school.

The American Journal of Orthopsychiatry has contributed significantly to scholarly discourse on race and racism especially in its coverage of issues related to the development and well-being of Black boys (BB) and men. Although disparate rates of exclusionary discipline for BB have been widely recognized as a problem, efforts to reduce them have failed. Because exclusion has negative consequences and is ineffective in changing behavior, it should be used rarely or not at all. This article advocates strict limits or outright bans on exclusion up to Grade 6. For BB, the time between pre-K and middle school is a developmentally critical period in which, for a variety of reasons, misconduct is high compared to other groups of children. Instituting bans will require a fundamental change in how school discipline is conceived. Schools will need to reimagine BB and strengthen their social competencies and emotional resilience. This will require a shift in emphasis from punishment to empathy for BB who misbehave. Implementing policies to prohibit exclusion will be difficult in light of opposition from school staff who are reluctant to surrender this tool and disagreements over the role of schools and the responsibility of families for boy's misbehavior. Recommendations for alternative programs and expansion of mental health services have been made in guidance from the federal government and adopted into law by several states. To reduce disparities, schools must establish a culture of caring and support, enact well-reasoned and collaborative regimes of control, and provide BB with interpretive frameworks that convey a sense of purpose and meaning. Together these approaches can free BB from the constraints of harsh and unfair discipline and help them to become the best versions of themselves. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Can you See What We See? African American Parents' Views of the Strengths and Challenges of Children and Youth Living with Adversity.

A premise of positive youth development is that social competencies can develop in adversity and co-exist with problem behaviors. This research tested whether African American youth ages 9-17 who had experienced significant family stressors would form groups that displayed combinations of adversity, problem behavior, and strengths. Parents of a nationally representative sample of African Americans children were interviewed on child difficulties and strengths as part of the CDC's 2019 National Health Interview Survey. About 15% of the national sample of African American youth had experienced violence or parental incarceration, depression, or drug abuse. Latent class analysis (LCA) using indicators of adversity and strengths identified four distinct classes. Class 1 included youth who experienced multiple adversities, exhibited few strengths, and were high in behavior problems. Members of both classes 2 and 3 were more likely to experience parental incarceration but exhibited altruism. Class 3 also experienced parental mental health problems. Members of class 4 had the highest exposure to violence but were comparatively high in altruism and affability. Regression analysis revealed that the groups differed from one another on emotional health but not on physical health controlling for age and gender. These findings support a focus by mental health prevention programs on building on the strengths of children growing up in adversity.

Attachment perspectives on race, prejudice, and anti-racism: Introduction to the Special Issue.

Central to attachment theory is the idea that behavior in close relationships can best be understood in context. Although decades of research have illuminated cross-cultural patterns of caregiving and attachment, there remains a critical need to increase research with African American families, examine the specific sociocultural context of systemic anti-Black racism, and integrate the rich theory and research of Black scholars. The goal of this special issue is to bring together attachment researchers and scholars studying Black youth and families to leverage and extend attachment-related work to advance anti-racist perspectives in developmental science. The papers in this special issue, highlighted in the introduction, illuminate pathways of risk and resilience in Black children, adolescents, and families and point to the protective power of relationships (and the limits of such protection) for mental and physical health. We highlight critical questions to guide ongoing dialogue and collaboration on this important topic.

Working toward anti-racist perspectives in attachment theory, research, and practice.

Recent social movements have illuminated systemic inequities in U.S. society, including within the social sciences. Thus, it is essential that attachment researchers and practitioners engage in reflection and action to work toward anti-racist perspectives in the field. Our aims in this paper are (1) to share the generative conversations and debates that arose in preparing the Special Issue of Attachment & Human Development, "Attachment Perspectives on Race, Prejudice, and Anti-Racism"; and (2) to propose key considerations for working toward anti-racist perspectives in the field of attachment. We provide recommendations for enriching attachment theory (e.g. considering relations between caregivers' racial-ethnic socialization and secure base provision), research (e.g. increasing the representation of African American researchers and participants), and practice (e.g. advocating for policies that reduce systemic inequities in family supports). Finally, we suggest two relevant models integrating attachment theory with perspectives from Black youth development as guides for future research.

Psychological science and COVID-19: An agenda for social action.

This report summarizes what is known about the psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and proposes ways for psychology organizations to engage in addressing pandemic-related challenges. A stress and coping framework is used to describe key factors that account for mental health difficulties resulting from the stress of pandemics including the pandemic course, political leadership and public response, cumulative stressors, risk and protective factors, and coping strategies. Psychology organizations could do much to provide help particularly to vulnerable healthcare and frontline workers, the elderly, and the socially isolated. They could offer clinical services and design prevention programs, train non-professional community workers to provide mental health first aid, assist NGO's and political leaders, and translate basic research on psychological factors that influence acceptance of public health measures. The pandemic occurs at a time of advanced connectivity that provides an opportunity for (a) scientific information exchange, (b) alleviation of distress of social isolation, but also (c) infodemic, unprecedented spread of hoaxes and online incitements to non-compliance with preventative measures. Psychology's role is not limited to addressing mental health needs but also includes promoting adjustment to changes in the economy, education and employment, and developing effective communication strategies that encourage acceptance of public health measures. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Understanding development of African American boys and young men: Moving from risks to positive youth development.

African American boys and young men in the United States face challenges unique to being a male and an ethnic minority in our society. Despite the marginalization of African American boys and young men, this article argues that African American boys and young men, like other individuals, are in large proportion able to overcome adversity and utilize positive youth development assets and resources, and that focusing on capabilities and strengths is worthy of primary emphasis (Lerner, Dowling, & Anderson, 2003; Stevenson, 2016). García Coll and colleagues' (1996) integrative model of developmental competencies in minority children lays the groundwork for conceptualizing the profound influence of racism, economic disadvantage, oppression, segregation, and other trauma-inducing experiences on the development of African American boys and young men. We extend that framework by adding notions of positive development and adaptive calibration to contextual challenges to account for prosocial development of African American boys and young men. We present descriptive and experimental research support for this approach and argue that it has the potential for increasing the validity, sophistication, and utility of developmental research on about African American boys and young men are presented. (PsycINFO Database Record

Communicative Function Use of Preschoolers and Mothers From Differing Racial and Socioeconomic Groups.

Purpose: This study explores whether communicative function (CF: reasons for communicating) use differs by socioeconomic status (SES), race/ethnicity, or gender among preschoolers and their mothers. Method: Mother-preschooler dyads (N = 95) from the National Center for Early Development and Learning's (2005) study of family and social environments were observed during 1 structured learning and free-play interaction. CFs were coded by trained independent raters. Results: Children used all CFs at similar rates, but those from low SES homes produced fewer utterances and less reasoning, whereas boys used less self-maintaining and more predicting. African American mothers produced more directing and less responding than European American and Latino American mothers, and Latino American mothers produced more utterances than European American mothers. Mothers from low SES homes did more directing and less responding. Conclusions: Mothers exhibited more sociocultural differences in CFs than children; this suggests that maternal demographic characteristics may influence CF production more than child demographics at school entry. Children from low SES homes talking less and boys producing less self-maintaining coincided with patterns previously detected in pragmatic literature. Overall, preschoolers from racial/ethnic minority and low SES homes were not less deft with CF usage, which may inform how their pragmatic skills are described. Supplemental Material: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.5890255.

Creating auspicious conditions for positive youth development in communities of color.

Representations of young people in the national media conjure unsavory images of urban youth as out of control, emotionally labile, unmotivated, and unwilling to take responsibility for their actions. Moreover, young persons of color are often represented in stories about failing high schools in which students fall behind peers in skills and seem to be incapable of overcoming problems at home or to benefit from instruction at school. Dominant narratives about young people in urban environments are often replete with images of the hypermasculine "thug" who operates according to a street code in which status is based on the ability to intimidate, and respect comes from the barrel of a gun. Although these images are gross exaggerations that apply to a very small number of young people, they are undisputed depictions that have come to dominate the narrative about urban youth and the difficulties they represent for families and communities. This article provides ways to move toward auspicious community conditions for youth development. To do so, it is necessary to delineate what is meant by positive youth development in terms of the outcomes desired as young people make the transition to adulthood.

Overcoming the educational disadvantages of poor children: How much do teacher preparation, workload, and expectations matter.

This article reviews data on aspects of the learning environment most closely associated with successful development of early academic competence, compares children from low socioeconomic backgrounds to children with higher socioeconomic status (SES) on access to academically auspicious environments, and uses the findings to identify promising targets for social innovations aimed at improving the educational prospects of poor children.

Editing on the edge in Denver, New Orleans, and Williamston-and soon in Dallas and Lincoln, too.

This editorial provides a farewell from the coeditors of the American Journal of Orthopsychiatry.

Creating developmentally auspicious school environments for African American boys.

African American (AA) boys face serious barriers to academic success, many of which are uncommon--or absent--in the lives of AA girls, other children of color, and European American children. In this chapter, we identify nine critical challenges to the successful education of AA boys and review possible solutions. In addition, we evaluate one particular reform, public single-sex schooling, as a possible solution to the challenges facing AA boys. Considering the evidence, we argue that recent efforts to expand the existence of public single-sex schools are rarely grounded in empirical findings. Given the lack of compelling evidence and the high stakes for AA boys, we call for more rigorous evaluations of the outcomes of sex-segregated programs that specifically target AA boys.

Predicting long-term outcomes for children affected by HIV and AIDS: perspectives from the scientific study of children's development.

The immediate and short-term consequences of adult HIV for affected children are well documented. Little research has examined the long-term implications of childhood adversity stemming from caregiver HIV infection. Through overviews provided by experts in the field, together with an iterative process of consultation and refinement, we have extracted insights from the broader field of child development of relevance to predicting the long-term consequences to children affected by HIV and AIDS. We focus on what is known about the impact of adversities similar to those experienced by HIV-affected children, and for which there is longitudinal evidence. Cautioning that findings are not directly transferable across children or contexts, we examine findings from the study of parental death, divorce, poor parental mental health, institutionalization, undernutrition, and exposure to violence. Regardless of the type of adversity, the majority of children manifest resilience and do not experience any long-term negative consequences. However, a significant minority do and these children experience not one, but multiple problems, which frequently endure over time in the absence of support and opportunities for recovery. As a result, they are highly likely to suffer numerous and enduring impacts. These insights suggest a new strategic approach to interventions for children affected by HIV and AIDS, one that effectively combines a universal lattice of protection with intensive intervention targeted to selected children and families.

Development of social-emotional competence in boys of color: a cross-sectional cohort analysis from pre-K to second grade.

This article explores the development of psychosocial competence in boys of color (BOC; 226 African Americans and 109 Latinos). Changes in competence were assessed over 2 years in cohorts of low-income BOC beginning in pre-K, kindergarten, or first grade. Psycho-social competence was assessed in terms of self-regulation, interpersonal skills, and positive relationships with peers and teachers. Psycho-social and academic competence in literacy and math were assessed in prekindergarten through second grade using teacher reports, child reports, and normed measures. One-year follow-up data were available on measures of psycho-social competence. BOC evidenced high levels of psycho-social competence, especially on self-regulation, which was related to both math and reading achievement. Teachers and children held similarly favorable views of their relationships, but teacher ratings of peer relationships of BOC were less positive. Although emotional self-regulation was stable, declines were observed in self-regulation of attention, quality of peer relationships, teacher-rated closeness, and satisfaction with life at school, especially over the transition from pre-K to primary school.

Socioemotional trajectories in black boys between kindergarten and the fifth grade: the role of cognitive skills and family in promoting resiliency.

Relatively little attention has been paid to emotional functioning of Black boys in contrast to the attention paid to externalizing problems, even though internalizing problems are strong predictors of later well-being. This study tests a multilevel risk model of emotional well-being assessing the relation of poverty, maternal functioning, and child cognitive competence to changes in Black boys' internalizing symptoms between kindergarten and the fifth grade. The study utilizes data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Cohort (ECLS-K) to describe development of internalizing problems in a nationally representative sample of Black boys (N = 1603) over the period. Through Latent Growth Curve Analysis, trajectories were identified that showed some boys with stable levels of internalizing symptoms (high and low levels), and one trajectory showing increases in internalizing problems over time. The model testing confirms that differences in these trajectories can be explained by environmental risks, maternal distress, and boys' cognitive skills. Early cognitive skills proved to be especially valuable in reducing the risk of internalizing problems.

From higher order thinking to higher order behavior: exploring the relationship between early cognitive skills and social competence in black boys.

This study examines the relations of higher order (i.e., abstract) thinking (HOT) skills to specific domains of social competence in Black boys (n = 108) attending publicly sponsored prekindergarten (pre-K) programs. Data for the study were collected as part of the National Center for Early Development and Learning (NCEDL) Multi-State Study, a national, longitudinal study examining the quality and outcomes in a representative sample of publicly sponsored pre-K programs in six states (N = 240). Pre-K and kindergarten teachers rated randomly selected children on measures of abstract thinking, self-regulation, and social functioning at the beginning and end of each school year. Applying structural equation modeling, compared with earlier time points, HOT measured in the fall of kindergarten significantly predicted each of the domains of social competence in the spring of kindergarten, with the exception of peer social skills, while controlling for general cognitive ability. Results suggest that early intervention to improve HOT may be an effective and more focused approach to address concerns about Black boys' early social competencies in specific domains and potentially reduce the risk of later social difficulties.

A longitudinal examination of socioemotional learning in African American and Latino boys across the transition from pre-K to kindergarten.

Questions about socioemotional learning in boys of color (BOC) arise in light of the disproportionate rates of school adjustment difficulties BOC experience by adolescence. Socioemotional competence in BOC is assessed in terms of self-regulation, interpersonal skills, and positive relationships with peers and teachers when they enter pre-K. Changes in competence are tracked until the end of kindergarten. Teachers from randomly selected early childhood programs in 11 states rated children's socioemotional competence in the fall and spring of pre-K. Children were followed through the end of kindergarten. Analyses compared Black (n = 278) and Latino (n = 347) boys to girls of color (n = 624) and White children (n = 1,209) while controlling for family poverty. Pre-K teachers rated a majority of BOC proficient on self-regulation and peer relations. BOC did not differ from White boys on initial competence ratings or on development over time, although boys as a group were rated as less competent than girls. Although gender mattered in the initial assessment of socioemotional competence, gender was unrelated to change in competence over time. The longitudinal analyses showed a decline in teacher ratings of socioemotional competence from pre-K to kindergarten. This decline was most likely attributable to the demands, structure, and didactic approaches common in kindergarten. Social competence did predict academic skills. Self-regulation of emotions was the domain most consistently related to academic functioning. The vulnerability BOC experience during adolescence is not evident in the levels of social competence they demonstrate early in their lives at school.

The relation of dialogic, control, and racial socialization practices to early academic and social competence: effects of gender, ethnicity, and family socioeconomic status.

This research tests the relations of parental practices to child competence and assertions that practices differ by gender of the child. Home-based interviews and structured observations of parent-child interactions were conducted with an ethnically and socioeconomically diverse sample of families (N = 501) whose 4-year-old children were served in public prekindergarten. Study data confirmed the importance of parental practices for children's academic and social competence but did not support claims that use of any of the practices was related to the child's gender. Significant differences were found for economic status on dialogic practices and for ethnicity on control and ethnic socialization. Poor parents employed dialogic practices less than nonpoor parents' and African American parents employed dialogic practices less often and control and ethnic socialization more often than European Americans. Dialogic practices were related to competence, but parental control and ethnic socialization were not.

Raising African American boys: an exploration of gender and racial socialization practices.

Although parental socialization practices are critical to a child's social development, little is known of the details of how parental practices function to meet the specific challenges of supporting young boys' development as African American and men. Accordingly, this article offers a window onto how 15 parents of African American boys (ages 3-8) conceive and implement strategies for their sons' social and emotional development. Using ethnographic observations and structured interview data, this article explores the ways they promote emerging racial and gender identities and socioemotional well-being. Findings reveal that highly incongruous messages and expectations are communicated to young boys about race and gender. The study's findings have implications for young African American boys' emerging racial and gender identities.