Enduring effects of perinatal nicotine exposure on murine sleep in adulthood.

The long-term consequences of early life nicotine exposure are poorly defined. Approximately 8-10% of women report smoking during pregnancy, and this may promote aberrant development in the offspring. To this end, we investigated potential enduring effects of perinatal nicotine exposure on murine sleep and affective behaviors in adulthood (~13-15 wk of age) in C57Bl6j mice. Mothers received a water bottle containing 200 µg/ml nicotine bitartrate dihydrate in 2% wt/vol saccharin or pH-matched 2% saccharin with 0.2% (vol/vol) tartaric acid throughout pregnancy and before weaning. Upon reaching adulthood, offspring were tested in the open field and elevated plus maze, as well as the forced swim and sucrose anhedonia tests. Nicotine-exposed male (but not female) mice had reduced mobility in the open field, but no differences were observed in anxiety-like or depressive-like responses. Upon observing this male-specific phenotype, we further assessed sleep-wake states via wireless EEG/EMG telemetry. Following baseline recording, we assessed whether mice exposed to nicotine altered their homeostatic response to 5 h of total sleep deprivation and whether nicotine influenced responses to a powerful somnogen [i.e., lipopolysaccharides (LPS)]. Males exposed to perinatal nicotine decreased the percent time spent awake and increased time in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep, without changes to REM sleep. Nicotine-exposed males also displayed exaggerated responses (increased time asleep and NREM spectral power) to sleep deprivation. Nicotine-exposed animals additionally had blunted EEG slow-wave responses to LPS administration. Together, our data suggest that perinatal nicotine exposure has long-lasting effects on normal sleep and homeostatic sleep processes into adulthood.

Defining the putative inhibitory site for a selective negative allosteric modulator of human α4ß2 neuronal nicotinic receptors.

Neuronal nicotinic receptors (nAChRs) have been implicated in several diseases and disorders such as autism spectrum disorders, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, and nicotine addiction. To understand the role of nAChRs in these conditions, it would be beneficial to have selective molecules that target specific nAChRs in vitro and in vivo. Our laboratory has previously identified a novel allosteric site on human α4ß2 nAChRs using a series of computational and in vitro approaches. At this site, we have identified negative allosteric modulators that selectively inhibit human α4ß2 nAChRs, a subtype implicated in nicotine addiction. This study characterizes the allosteric site via site-directed mutagenesis. Three amino acids (Phe118, Glu60, and Thr58) on the ß2 subunit were shown to participate in the inhibitory properties of the selective antagonist KAB-18 and provided insights into its antagonism of human α4ß2 nAChRs. SAR studies with KAB-18 analogues and various mutant α4ß2 nAChRs also provided information concerning how different physiochemical features influence the inhibition of nAChRs through this allosteric site. Together, these studies identify the amino acids that contribute to the selective antagonism of human α4ß2 nAChRs at this allosteric site. Finally, these studies define the physiochemical features of ligands that influence interaction with specific amino acids in this allosteric site.

The nicotinic acetylcholine receptors of zebrafish and an evaluation of pharmacological tools used for their study.

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) have been used to study multiple effects of nicotine, for example on cognition, locomotion, and stress responses, relying on the assumption that pharmacological tools will operate similarly upon molecular substrates in the fish and mammalian systems. We have cloned the zebrafish nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subunits and expressed key nAChR subtypes in Xenopus oocytes including neuronal (α4ß2, α2ß2, α3ß4, and α7) and muscle (α1ß1(b)ɛδ) nAChR. Consistent with studies of mammalian nAChR, nicotine was relatively inactive on muscle-type receptors, having both low potency and efficacy. It had high efficacy but low potency for α7 receptors, and the best potency and good efficacy for α4ß2 receptors. Cytisine, a key lead compound for the development of smoking cessation agents, is a full agonist for both mammalian α7 and α3ß4 receptors, but a full agonist only for the fish α7, with surprisingly low efficacy for α3ß4. The efficacy of cytisine for α4ß2 was somewhat greater than typically reported for mammalian α4ß2. The ganglionic blocker mecamylamine was most potent for blocking α3ß4 receptors, least potent for α7, and roughly equipotent for the muscle receptors and the ß2-containing nAChR. However, the block of ß2-containing receptors was slowly reversible, consistent with effective targeting of these CNS-type receptors in vivo. Three prototypical α7-selective agonists, choline, tropane, and 4OH-GTS-21, were tested, and these agents were observed to activate both fish α7 and α4ß2 nAChR. Our data therefore indicate that while some pharmacological tools used in zebrafish may function as expected, others will not.

Identification of a negative allosteric site on human α4ß2 and α3ß4 neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

Acetylcholine-based neurotransmission is regulated by cationic, ligand-gated ion channels called nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). These receptors have been linked to numerous neurological diseases and disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and nicotine addiction. Recently, a class of compounds has been discovered that antagonize nAChR function in an allosteric fashion. Models of human α4ß2 and α3ß4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) extracellular domains have been developed to computationally explore the binding of these compounds, including the dynamics and free energy changes associated with ligand binding. Through a blind docking study to multiple receptor conformations, the models were used to determine a putative binding mode for the negative allosteric modulators. This mode, in close proximity to the agonist binding site, is presented in addition to a hypothetical mode of antagonism that involves obstruction of C loop closure. Molecular dynamics simulations and MM-PBSA free energy of binding calculations were used as computational validation of the predicted binding mode, while functional assays on wild-type and mutated receptors provided experimental support. Based on the proposed binding mode, two residues on the ß2 subunit were independently mutated to the corresponding residues found on the ß4 subunit. The T58K mutation resulted in an eight-fold decrease in the potency of KAB-18, a compound that exhibits preferential antagonism for human α4ß2 over α3ß4 nAChRs, while the F118L mutation resulted in a loss of inhibitory activity for KAB-18 at concentrations up to 100 µM. These results demonstrate the selectivity of KAB-18 for human α4ß2 nAChRs and validate the methods used for identifying the nAChR modulator binding site. Exploitation of this site may lead to the development of more potent and subtype-selective nAChR antagonists which may be used in the treatment of a number of neurological diseases and disorders.

Evidence for the involvement of adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) protein in maintaining cellular distributions of α3ß4 nicotinic receptors.

Evidence exists supporting the involvement of adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) protein in the assembly of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in the postsynaptic complex. In the following studies, the effects of APC protein on cellular distribution of recombinant α3ß4 nAChRs was investigated. RT-PCR and Western blotting techniques established the expression of APC protein both in bovine adrenal chromaffin cells, which express native α3ß4* nAChRs, and in a HEK293 cell line expressing recombinant bovine adrenal α3ß4 nAChRs (BMα3ß4 cells). Transfection of BMα3ß4 cells with siRNA to APC, reduced APC protein levels to 52.4% and 61.9% of control values at 24 and 48 h after transfection. To investigate the effects of APC on the cellular distribution of α3ß4 nAChRs, [(3)H]epibatidine binding approaches, coupled with APC siRNA treatment, were used. Twenty-four and 48 h after APC siRNA transfection, intracellular nAChRs were significantly reduced to 71% and 68% of control, respectively, while the total population of nAChRs were not significantly changed. Given that total cellular nAChRs represent the sum of surface and intracellular nAChRs, these studies support a re-distribution of nAChRs to the plasma membrane with APC siRNA treatment. Treatment of the cells with the protein synthesis inhibitor, puromycin, also caused a significant reduction (55%) in APC protein levels, and produced a similar re-distribution of cellular nAChRs. These studies support the involvement of APC protein in the maintenance of normal cellular distribution of α3ß4 nAChRs.

Negative allosteric modulators that target human alpha4beta2 neuronal nicotinic receptors.

Allosteric modulation of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) is considered to be one of the most promising approaches for therapeutics. We have previously reported on the pharmacological activity of several compounds that act as negative allosteric modulators (NAMs) of nAChRs. In the following studies, the effects of 30 NAMs from our small chemical library on both human alpha4beta2 (Halpha4beta2) and human alpha3beta4 (Halpha3beta4) nAChRs expressed in human embryonic kidney ts201 cells were investigated. During calcium accumulation assays, these NAMs inhibited nAChR activation with IC(50) values ranging from 2.4 microM to more than 100 microM. Several NAMs showed relative selectivity for Halpha4beta2 nAChRs with IC(50) values in the low micromolar range. A lead molecule, KAB-18, was identified that shows relative selectivity for Halpha4beta2 nAChRs. This molecule contains three phenyl rings, one piperidine ring, and one ester bond linkage. Structure-activity relationship (SAR) analyses of our data revealed three regions of KAB-18 that contribute to its relative selectivity. Predictive three-dimensional quantitative SAR (comparative molecular field analysis and comparative molecular similarity indices analysis) models were generated from these data, and a pharmacophore model was constructed to determine the chemical features that are important for biological activity. Using docking approaches and molecular dynamics on a Halpha4beta2 nAChR homology model, a binding mode for KAB-18 at the alpha/beta subunit interface that corresponds to the predicted pharmacophore is described. This binding mode was supported by mutagenesis studies. In summary, these studies highlight the importance of SAR, computational, and molecular biology approaches for the design and synthesis of potent and selective antagonists targeting specific nAChR subtypes.

Nicotine inhibits Fc epsilon RI-induced cysteinyl leukotrienes and cytokine production without affecting mast cell degranulation through alpha 7/alpha 9/alpha 10-nicotinic receptors.

Smokers are less likely to develop some inflammatory and allergic diseases. In Brown-Norway rats, nicotine inhibits several parameters of allergic asthma, including the production of Th2 cytokines and the cysteinyl leukotriene LTC(4). Cysteinyl leukotrienes are primarily produced by mast cells, and these cells play a central role in allergic asthma. Mast cells express a high-affinity receptor for IgE (FcepsilonRI). Following its cross-linking, cells degranulate and release preformed inflammatory mediators (early phase) and synthesize and secrete cytokines/chemokines and leukotrienes (late phase). The mechanism by which nicotine modulates mast cell activation is unclear. Using alpha-bungarotoxin binding and quantitative PCR and PCR product sequencing, we showed that the rat mast/basophil cell line RBL-2H3 expresses nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) alpha7, alpha9, and alpha10; exposure to exceedingly low concentrations of nicotine (nanomolar), but not the biologically inactive metabolite cotinine, for > or = 8 h suppressed the late phase (leukotriene/cytokine production) but not degranulation (histamine and hexosaminidase release). These effects were unrelated to those of nicotine on intracellular free calcium concentration but were causally associated with the inhibition of cytosolic phospholipase A(2) activity and the PI3K/ERK/NF-kappaB pathway, including phosphorylation of Akt and ERK and nuclear translocation of NF-kappaB. The suppressive effect of nicotine on the late-phase response was blocked by the alpha7/alpha9-nAChR antagonists methyllycaconitine and alpha-bungarotoxin, as well as by small interfering RNA knockdown of alpha7-, alpha9-, or alpha10-nAChRs, suggesting a functional interaction between alpha7-, alpha9-, and alpha10-nAChRs that might explain the response of RBL cells to nanomolar concentrations of nicotine. This "hybrid" receptor might serve as a target for novel antiallergic/antiasthmatic therapies.

Cloning and spatiotemporal expression of zebrafish neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha 6 and alpha 4 subunit RNAs.

Acetylcholine plays an important role in regulation of nervous system development and function. We are developing zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a model system to study the role of specific neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) subtypes in development and the effects of nicotine on the developing vertebrate nervous system. We previously characterized the expression of several zebrafish nAChR subunits. To further develop the zebrafish model, here we report a study on the molecular characterization of two additional nAChR subunit genes, designated chrna6 and chrna4. Both zebrafish nAChRs have a high degree of sequence identity to nAChRs expressed in a variety of mammalian species. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was used to show that both nAChR subunit RNAs were expressed early in zebrafish development, with the chrna4 transcript present at 3 hours postfertilization (hpf) and the chrna6 RNA present at 10 hpf. In situ hybridization was used to localize chrna6 and chrna4 RNA expression in 24, 48, 72, and 96 hpf zebrafish. The chrna6 and chrna4 RNAs were each expressed in a unique pattern, which changed during development. At various ages, chrna6 was expressed in Rohon-Beard sensory neurons, trigeminal ganglion, retina, and the pineal gland. Most notably, chrna6 was expressed in catecholaminergic neurons in the midbrain, but was also present in noncatecholaminergic cells in both midbrain and hindbrain. The expression of chrna6 RNA in catecholaminergic cells supports the use of zebrafish as a valid model system to better understand the molecular basis of cholinergic regulation of dopaminergic signaling and the role of alpha6-containing nAChRs in Parkinson's disease. The most notable chrna4 expression was in neural crest cells at 24 hpf and reticulospinal neurons in hindbrain at 48 hpf. chrna4 RNA exhibited a widespread and robust expression pattern in the midbrain in 72 hpf and 96 hpf zebrafish.

Effect of novel negative allosteric modulators of neuronal nicotinic receptors on cells expressing native and recombinant nicotinic receptors: implications for drug discovery.

Allosteric modulation of nAChRs is considered to be one of the most promising approaches for drug design targeting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). We have reported previously on the pharmacological activity of several compounds that seem to act noncompetitively to inhibit the activation of alpha3beta4(*) nAChRs. In this study, the effects of 51 structurally similar molecules on native and recombinant alpha3beta4 nAChRs are characterized. These 51 molecules inhibited adrenal neurosecretion activated via stimulation of native alpha3beta4(*) nAChR, with IC(50) values ranging from 0.4 to 13.0 microM. Using cells expressing recombinant alpha3beta4 nAChRs, these molecules inhibited calcium accumulation (a more direct assay to establish nAChR activity), with IC(50) values ranging from 0.7 to 38.2 microM. Radiolabeled nAChR binding studies to orthosteric sites showed no inhibitory activity on either native or recombinant nAChRs. Correlation analyses of the data from both functional assays suggested additional, non-nAChR activity of the molecules. To test this hypothesis, the effects of the drugs on neurosecretion stimulated through non-nAChR mechanisms were investigated; inhibitory effects ranged from no inhibition to 95% inhibition at concentrations of 10 microM. Correlation analyses of the functional data confirmed this hypothesis. Several of the molecules (24/51) increased agonist binding to native nAChRs, supporting allosteric interactions with nAChRs. Computational modeling and blind docking identified a binding site for our negative allosteric modulators near the orthosteric binding site of the receptor. In summary, this study identified several molecules for potential development as negative allosteric modulators and documented the importance of multiple screening assays for nAChR drug discovery.

T cells express alpha7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunits that require a functional TCR and leukocyte-specific protein tyrosine kinase for nicotine-induced Ca2+ response.

Acute and chronic effects of nicotine on the immune system are usually opposite; acute treatment stimulates while chronic nicotine suppresses immune and inflammatory responses. Nicotine acutely raises intracellular calcium ([Ca(2+)](i)) in T cells, but the mechanism of this response is unclear. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are present on neuronal and non-neuronal cells, but while in neurons, nAChRs are cation channels that participate in neurotransmission; their structure and function in nonexcitable cells are not well-defined. In this communication, we present evidence that T cells express alpha7-nAChRs that are critical in increasing [Ca(2+)](i) in response to nicotine. Cloning and sequencing of the receptor from human T cells showed a full-length transcript essentially identical to the neuronal alpha7-nAChR subunit (>99.6% homology). These receptors are up-regulated and tyrosine phosphorylated by treatment with nicotine, anti-TCR Abs, or Con A. Furthermore, knockdown of the alpha7-nAChR subunit mRNA by RNA interference reduced the nicotine-induced Ca(2+) response, but unlike the neuronal receptor, alpha-bungarotoxin and methyllycaconitine not only failed to block, but also actually raised [Ca(2+)](i) in T cells. The nicotine-induced release of Ca(2+) from intracellular stores in T cells did not require extracellular Ca(2+), but, similar to the TCR-mediated Ca(2+) response, required activation of protein tyrosine kinases, a functional TCR/CD3 complex, and leukocyte-specific tyrosine kinase. Moreover, CD3zeta and alpha7-nAChR co-immunoprecipitated with anti-CD3zeta or anti-alpha7-nAChR Abs. These results suggest that in T cells, alpha7-nAChR, despite its close sequence homology with neuronal alpha7-nAChR, fails to form a ligand-gated Ca(2+) channel, and that the nicotine-induced rise in [Ca(2+)](i) in T cells requires functional TCR/CD3 and leukocyte-specific tyrosine kinase.

Guidelines on nicotine dose selection for in vivo research.

RATIONALE: This review provides insight for the judicious selection of nicotine dose ranges and routes of administration for in vivo studies. The literature is replete with reports in which a dosaging regimen chosen for a specific nicotine-mediated response was suboptimal for the species used. In many cases, such discrepancies could be attributed to the complex variables comprising species-specific in vivo responses to acute or chronic nicotine exposure. OBJECTIVES: This review capitalizes on the authors' collective decades of in vivo nicotine experimentation to clarify the issues and to identify the variables to be considered in choosing a dosaging regimen. Nicotine dose ranges tolerated by humans and their animal models provide guidelines for experiments intended to extrapolate to human tobacco exposure through cigarette smoking or nicotine replacement therapies. Just as important are the nicotine dosaging regimens used to provide a mechanistic framework for acquisition of drug-taking behavior, dependence, tolerance, or withdrawal in animal models. RESULTS: Seven species are addressed: humans, nonhuman primates, rats, mice, Drosophila, Caenorhabditis elegans, and zebrafish. After an overview on nicotine metabolism, each section focuses on an individual species, addressing issues related to genetic background, age, acute vs chronic exposure, route of administration, and behavioral responses. CONCLUSIONS: The selected examples of successful dosaging ranges are provided, while emphasizing the necessity of empirically determined dose-response relationships based on the precise parameters and conditions inherent to a specific hypothesis. This review provides a new, experimentally based compilation of species-specific dose selection for studies on the in vivo effects of nicotine.

Cell specificity of a rat neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha7 subunit gene promoter.

Neuronal nAChRs are pentameric transmembrane proteins which function as ligand-gated ion channels and are composed of multiple alpha and beta subunits. Nine neuronal nAChR alpha subunit genes (alpha2-alpha10) and three nAChR beta subunit genes (beta2-beta4) have been identified. nAChR subtypes are heteromers, composed of various combinations of nAChR subunits or homomers composed of alpha7, alpha8, or alpha9 subunits. nAChR subtypes are widely expressed in the nervous system, yet each subunit has a distinct and unique pattern of expression. This report focuses on the expression of the nAChR alpha7 gene since homomeric nAChRs can be formed from this one subunit, simplifying a study of the expression of a specific nAChR subtype. Alpha7 nAChRs are involved in several important biological activities in addition to synaptic transmission including mediating neurite outgrowth, neuronal development and cell death, and in presynaptic control of neurotransmitter release. Transcriptional regulation of alpha7 gene expression may be important to control the location and timing of these events. We previously isolated a rat alpha7 nAChR promoter and studied expression in PC12 cells. In this study we examined the expression of the alpha7 promoter in PC12, HEK293, L6, SN17 and Neuro-2A cells in order to define elements necessary for cell-specific expression. Elements promoting expression of alpha7 in muscle and fibroblasts were identified. We also demonstrated that several other nAChR genes are also expressed in SN 17 and Neuro-2A cells, supporting use of these cell lines as models to study transcriptional control of nAChR genes.

Receptor protection studies comparing recombinant and native nicotinic receptors: Evidence for a subpopulation of mecamylamine-sensitive native alpha3beta4* nicotinic receptors.

Studies involving receptor protection have been used to define the functional involvement of specific receptor subtypes in tissues expressing multiple receptor subtypes. Previous functional studies from our laboratory demonstrate the feasibility of this approach when applied to neuronal tissues expressing multiple nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). In the current studies, the ability of a variety of nAChR agonists and antagonists to protect native and recombinant alpha3beta4 nAChRs from alkylation were investigated using nAChR binding techniques. Alkylation of native alpha3beta4* nAChRs from membrane preparations of bovine adrenal chromaffin cells resulted in a complete loss of specific [(3)H]epibatidine binding. This loss of binding to native nAChRs was preventable by pretreatment with the agonists, carbachol or nicotine. The partial agonist, cytisine, produced partial protection. Several nAChR antagonists were also tested for their ability to protect. Hexamethonium and decamethonium were without protective activity while mecamylamine and tubocurarine were partially effective. Addition protection studies were performed on recombinant alpha3beta4 nAChRs. As with native alpha3beta4* nAChRs, alkylation produced a complete loss of specific [(3)H]epibatidine binding to recombinant alpha3beta4 nAChRs which was preventable by pretreatment with nicotine. However, unlike native alpha3beta4* nAChRs, cytisine and mecamylamine, provide no protection for alkylation. These results highlight the differences between native alpha3beta4* nAChRs and recombinant alpha3beta4 nAChRs and support the use of protection assays to characterize native nAChR subpopulations.

Expression of native alpha3beta4* neuronal nicotinic receptors: binding and functional studies investigating turnover of surface and intracellular receptor populations.

Several pathological conditions involve alterations in expression of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Although some studies have addressed processes involved with muscle nAChR expression, knowledge of the regulation of neuronal nAChRs is particularly sparse. The following studies were designed to investigate cellular mechanisms involved with expression of neuronal alpha3beta4* nAChRs. Catecholamine secretion assays and receptor binding studies coupled with receptor alkylation were used to study the nAChR regulation and turnover. Alkylation of adrenal nAChRs results in a rapid and complete loss of receptor-mediated neurosecretion and surface [(3)H]epibatidine binding sites. After alkylation, both neurosecretory function and nAChR binding slowly (24-48 h) return to prealkylation levels. When cells are treated with the protein synthesis inhibitor puromycin, after alkylation, receptor-mediated neurosecretion does not recover. Long-term treatment (24-48-h) with puromycin, in the absence of alkylation, results in a slow, time-dependent shift to the right, followed by a downward shift, in the nicotine concentration-response curve, documenting a disappearance of surface nAChRs. Puromycin treatment alone also results in a loss to both surface and intracellular [(3)H]epibatidine binding sites. nAChR beta4 subunit levels are significantly decreased after treatment with puromycin. These data support a constitutive turnover of adrenal alpha3beta4* nAChRs, requiring continual de novo synthesis of new receptor protein.

Cloning and expression of zebrafish neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

We propose to use the zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a vertebrate model to study the role of neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) in development. As a first step toward using zebrafish as a model, we cloned three zebrafish cDNAs with a high degree of sequence similarity to nAChR beta3, alpha2 and alpha7 subunits expressed in other species. RT-PCR was used to show that the beta3 and alpha2 subunit RNAs were present in zebrafish embryos only 2-5hours post-fertilization (hpf) while alpha7 subunit RNA was not detected until 8hpf, supporting the differential regulation of nAChRs during development. In situ hybridization was used to localize zebrafish beta3, alpha2, and alpha7 RNA expression. nAChR binding techniques were used to detect the early expression of two high-affinity [3H]-epibatidine binding sites in 2 days post-fertilization (dpf) zebrafish embryos with IC(50) values of 28.6pM and 29.7nM and in 5dpf embryos with IC(50) values of 28.4pM and 8.9nM. These studies are consistent with the involvement of neuronal nAChRs in early zebrafish development.

Pharmacological characterization of recombinant bovine alpha3beta4 neuronal nicotinic receptors stably expressed in HEK 293 cells.

In these studies, [(3)H]epibatidine is used as the radioligand to characterize recombinant bovine alpha3beta4 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) expressed in HEK 293 cells. Specific binding reaches equilibrium quickly and is saturable with a K(d) value of 0.66 nM. The affinities of the several cholinergic agents were determined, including nicotine (K(i), 0.5 microM), cytisine (K(i), 0.5 microM), carbachol (K(i), 4.1 microM), dihydro-(beta)-erythroidine (K(i), 43.5 microM), d-tubocurarine (K(i), 0.1 microM), 1,1-dimethyl-4-phenylpiperazinium (K(i), 0.5 microM), decamethonium (K(i), 175 microM) and methyllycaconitine (K(i), 0.4 microM). These studies show that the pharmacological characteristics of recombinant bovine alpha3beta4 nAChRs are similar to native bovine alpha3beta4* nAChRs, and indicate that the alpha5 subunit, if present in the native nAChRs, does not affect ligand affinity.

Evidence for constitutive expression of bovine adrenal a3beta4* nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

Many pathological conditions involve alterations in expression of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). The following studies were designed to investigate cellular mechanisms involved with expression and turnover of alpha3beta4* nAChRs. These studies support constitutive turnover of adrenal alpha3beta4* nAChRs and the use of cultured adrenal chromaffin cells to study nAChR regulation.