Trends and social determinants of the obesity epidemic among reproductive-age women in ten Asian countries.

The rapid epidemiological transition in Asian countries, resulting from the rising trend of urbanisation and lifestyle changes, is associated with an increasing risk of obesity in women of reproductive age. This is the first study to investigate the trends and population-attributable fraction (PAF) of obesity, and the interaction effects of education and wealth on obesity among reproductive-age women aged 15-49 years in ten Asian countries. This cross-sectional study examined the most recent (2000 to 2022) Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS) data from ten Central and Southeast Asian countries. Multilevel multinomial logistic regression models were used to compute odds ratios (ORs). PAFs adjusted for communality were calculated using adjusted ORs and prevalence estimates for each risk factor. This study included a weighted sample of 743,494 reproductive-age women. All the countries showed an increasing trend for obesity and a decreasing trend for underweight, except for the Maldives. The highest PAFs of obesity were associated with women who were married (PAF = 22.2%; 95% CI 22.1, 22.4), aged 35-49 years (PAF = 16.4%; 95% CI 15.5, 17.1), resided in wealthy households (PAF = 14.5%; 95% CI 14.4, 14.5), watched television regularly (PAF = 12.5%; 95% CI 12.1, 12.8), and lived in urban areas (PAF = 7.8%; 95% CI 7.7, 8.0). The combined PAF showed that these five risk factors were associated with 73.3% (95% CI 71.8, 74.9) of obesity among reproductive-age women. Interaction analysis between women's education and household wealth revealed that having a secondary or higher level of education and residing in a wealthier household was associated with a lower risk of obesity (OR = 0.71, 95% CI 0.66, 0.76). The findings of this study suggest that, in order to address the rising rate of obesity among women in Asian countries, education and lifestyle modifications in urban areas should be a priority. Pakistan and the Maldives need to be a priority given the rapidly increasing trends in obesity and underweight subpopulations in their respective countries.

Blessing of the moon: cultural beliefs, birth timing and child health in Nepal.

In many South Asian contexts, specific dates are auspicious and inauspicious for health-related behaviours and outcomes. This study analysed the effect of lunar date-related auspicious beliefs in Nepal on childbirths and neonatal health outcomes. Using the daily birth records from a tertiary maternity hospital, we empirically examined whether births occurred disproportionally around full moon days. We found an average of 10.7 extra births on and before full moon days, with an average of 7.5 extra Caesarean deliveries on full moon days. We demonstrated that births occurring on or before the full moon day have poor neonatal health outcomes. However, a subsample analysis suggested better health outcomes for low-risk mothers and worse health outcomes for high-risk mothers. These findings suggest that low-risk mothers may move their deliveries to auspicious dates with fewer complications than high-risk mothers. The results emphasise the need for additional research to distinguish health service demand from supply influences on birth timing in Nepal.

Traditional Beliefs, Practices, and Migration: A Risk to Malaria Transmission in Rural Nepal.

The study aimed to explore sociocultural factors influencing the risk of malaria and practices and beliefs towards malaria prevention, transmission and treatment in a remote village in Khatyad Rural Municipality (KRM) of Nepal. A sequential exploratory mixed methods approach was used. Qualitative data were collected through 25 one-on-one, in-depth interviews followed by a face-to-face household survey (n = 218) among people from a village in KRM believed to have a high risk of malaria. Traditional practices such as Chhaupadi requiring the seclusion of women during menstruation and post-partum, transhumance, and reliance on traditional healers for the management of malaria were common practices in the village. The household survey found 98.1% of women faced menstrual exile either inside the house or in a separate hut, with 64.2% not having access to Long-lasting Insecticidal Nets (LLINs). Hardships and economic constraints compelled villagers to migrate seasonally for work to malaria-endemic areas in India, thereby exposing themselves to the risk of malaria. Persistent traditional beliefs and seasonal migration could threaten the elimination goals set by the national malaria program.

Progress in Reducing Inequalities in Reproductive, Maternal, Newborn and Child Health Services in Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Equity has emerged as a cross-cutting theme in the health sector, and countries across the world are striving to ensure that all people have access to the health services they need without undue financial hardship and educational, social, cultural and geographical barriers. In this context, this analysis has attempted to analyse Nepal's progress in reducing inequalities in reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health services based on economic status and place of residence. METHODS: In this analysis, we have used data available from the web version of the Health Equity Assessment Toolkit, a data visualisation tool developed by the World Health Organisation. We have analysed the inequalities in terms of a composite coverage index which combines eight reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health interventions along the continuum of care. RESULTS: Composite coverage of reproductive, maternal, newborn and child health services was 43% in 2001 which increased to 65% in 2016. The absolute difference in composite coverage of the services between the lowest and highest wealth quintiles decreased from 28-percentage points in 2001 to 8-percentage points in 2016. The difference in service coverage between the urban and rural settings reduced from 21-percentage points to six percentage points in the period. Among the eight various services, births attended by skilled birth attendants is the indicator with the highest scope for improvement.   Conclusions: Inequalities based on wealth quintiles and residence places have narrowed from 2001 to 2016. Additional efforts in expanding skilled birth attendants and antenatal care service coverage among the poorest quintile and rural residents could further improve the coverage of the indicators at the national level and narrow down the inequalities.

Factors associated with physical and sexual violence among school-going adolescents in Nepal: Findings from Global School-based Student Health Survey.

BACKGROUND: Globally violence is a matter of public health concern with severe physical and mental health implications and social consequences. Evidence suggest that adolescents have an elevated risk of exposure to physical and sexual violence. However, there is a lack of nationally representative research on violence and its associated factors in Nepal to inform interventions. This paper attempts to find the factors associated with various forms of physical and sexual violence among school-going adolescents in Nepal. METHODS: We analysed the cross-sectional data from the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) 2015. The GSHS survey applied a two-stage cluster sampling process to select a representative sample of 7 to 11 grade students from 74 schools across the country. We applied logistic regression analysis to identify the factors associated with physical and sexual violence. RESULTS: Out of the total 6,529 participants, 45.24% of them faced a physical attack, 39.25% were involved in a physical fight, and 11.65% were victims of sexual violence in the survey administered between 7 August 2015 to 14 March 2016. In a multiple regression analysis, the age of participants, parental supervision, feeling unsafe at school, and the number of close friends were found to be associated with a physical attack. Participants who were bullied, had multiple sex partners, and had received corporal punishment in school had a higher engagement in a physical fight. Likewise, school grade, having parents who understand the problems, having multiple sex partners, and corporal punishment at school were associated with instances of sexual violence. CONCLUSION: The study identified multiple factors associated with experiences of physical attacks, involvement in a physical fight, and sexual violence among school-going adolescents. This study results can have important implications for school administration, parents, and policymakers alike to plan appropriate anti-violence strategies and interventions. Since various forms of violence share some common risk factors, a comprehensive strategy could be worth considering to prevent such acts of violence.

Sociocultural and economic determinants of stunting and thinness among adolescent boys and girls in Nepal.

Despite the increasing interest in the determinants of adolescent undernutrition in low- and middle-income countries, a comprehensive multi-level overview at the country level is missing. Using the nationally representative 2014 Nepal Adolescent Nutrition Survey, this study aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of the sociocultural and economic determinants of stunting and thinness of adolescent boys and girls in Nepal. Multivariate logistic regression models were used to estimate the associations between multiple individual, household and community determinants and stunting and thinness among 3773 adolescents aged 10-19 years (1888 boys and 1885 girls). The prevalence rates of stunting and thinness indicated suboptimal nutritional status and an inadequate growth environment in Nepali adolescents. The results highlighted an association of paternal occupation and education, household income, number of earning household members, geographical place of residence, caste/ethnicity and nutritional knowledge with stunting, with higher odds for males and older adolescents. Paternal occupation, education, household income, geographical region, caste/ethnicity and nutrition knowledge were associated with thinness, with higher odds for males and younger adolescents. The findings underscore the importance of involving adolescents, their parents and their communities in interventions. Such interventions should not only be aimed at improving adolescent nutrition but also at optimizing adolescents' growth environment for better health and development. Future research should focus on context-specific causal pathways and mechanisms through which sociocultural and economic determinants influence nutritional outcomes within broader societal, cultural and political settings. A longitudinal approach, including a range of dietary and nutrition indicators would allow understanding how and when the relative importance of these factors change during adolescence.

Frontline Healthcare Workers' Knowledge and Perception of COVID-19, and Willingness to Work during the Pandemic in Nepal.

This study investigated the contextual factors associated with the knowledge, perceptions, and the willingness of frontline healthcare workers (FHWs) to work during the COVID-19 pandemic in Nepal among a total of 1051 FHWs. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was applied to identify independent associations between predictors and outcome variables. Of the total study subjects, 17.2% reported inadequate knowledge on COVID-19, 63.6% reported that they perceived the government response as unsatisfactory, and 35.9% showed an unwillingness to work during the pandemic. Our analyses demonstrated that FHWs at local public health facilities, pharmacists, Ayurvedic health workers (HWs), and those with chronic diseases were less likely, and male FHWs were more likely, to have adequate knowledge of COVID-19. Likewise, nurses/midwives, public health workers, FHWs from Karnali and Far-West provinces, and those who had adequate knowledge of COVID-19 were more likely to have satisfactory perceptions towards the government response. Further, FHWs-paramedics, nurse/midwives, public health workers, laboratory workers-FHWs from Karnali Province and Far-West Province, and those with satisfactory perceptions of government responses to COVID-19 were predictors of willingness to work during the COVID-19 pandemic. These results suggest that prompt actions are required to improve FHWs' knowledge of COVID-19, address negative perceptions of government responses, and motivate them through specific measures to provide healthcare services during the pandemic.

Mortality and risk factors of disease in Nepal: Trend and projections from 1990 to 2040.

BACKGROUND: Between 1990 and 2017, Nepal experienced a shift in the burden of disease from communicable, maternal, neonatal and nutritional (CMNN) diseases to non-communicable diseases (NCDs). With an increasing ageing population and life-style changes including tobacco use, harmful alcohol consumption, unhealthy diets, and insufficient physical activity, the proportion of total deaths from NCDs will continue to increase. An analysis of current diseases pattern and projections of the trends informs planning of health interventions. This analysis aims to project the mortality and risk factor of disease until 2040, based on past trends. METHODS: This study uses secondary data from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study which analyses historic data from 1990 to 2016 to predict key variables such as, the mortality rates, life expectancy and Years of Life Lost for different causes of death from 2017 to 2040. 'GBD Foresight Visualization', a visualisation tool publicly available in the webpage of Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation was the source of data for this analysis. GBD forecasting uses three-component modelling process: the first component captures variations due to risk factors and interventions, the second takes into consideration the variation due to measures of development quantified as social development index and the third uses an autoregressive integrated moving average model to capture the unexplained component correlated over time. We extracted Nepal specific data from it and reported number of deaths, mortality rates (per 100,000 population) as well as causes of death for the period 1990 to 2040. RESULTS: In 1990, CMNN diseases were responsible for approximately two-thirds (63.6%) of total deaths in Nepal. The proportion of the deaths from the CMNN diseases has reduced to 26.8% in 2015 and is estimated to be about a fifth of the 1990 figure (12.47%) in 2040. Conversely, deaths from NCDs reflect an upward trend. NCDs claimed a third of total deaths (29.91%) in the country in 1990, while in 2015, were responsible for about two-thirds of the total deaths (63.31%). In 2040, it is predicted that NCDs will contribute to over two-thirds (78.64%) of total deaths in the country. Less than a tenth (6.49%) of the total deaths in Nepal in 1990 were associated with injuries which increased to 13.04% in 2015 but is projected to decrease to 8.89% in 2040. In 1990, metabolic risk factors including high systolic blood pressure, high total cholesterol, high fasting plasma glucose, high body mass index and impaired kidney functions collectively contributed to a tenth of the total deaths (10.38%) in Nepal, whereas, in 2040 more than a third (37.31%) of the total deaths in the country could be attributed to it. CONCLUSION: A reverse of the situation in 1990, NCDs are predicted to be the leading cause of deaths and metabolic risk factors are predicted to contribute to the highest proportion of deaths in 2040. NCDs could demand a major share of resources within the health sector requiring extensive multi-sectoral prevention measures, re-allocation of resources and re-organisation of the health system to cater for long-term care.

Serious Injury and its Correlates among School Going Adolescents in Nepal: A cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Injury-related mortality and morbidity, a leading cause of death and disability worldwide, is common among adolescents.  However, there is insufficient information on the status and factors responsible for injury among adolescents in Nepal. Hence, the paper estimates the injury prevalence and identify the factors associated with it among adolescent Nepalese students. METHODS: This study used national representative cross-sectional data of the Global School-based Student Health Survey 2015. Complex sample analysis was performed after adjusting the selection probability of each sample participants to identify the correlates of injury among 6529 students of 68 schools in Nepal. RESULTS: Out of 6529 study participants, 62.79% reported severe injury. The most common injury type was cut or stab wound (67.61%) followed by broken bone/dislocated joints (11.03%) and the most common cause of injury was fall (56.40%). Serious injury was significantly associated with a physical attack (AOR=1.54, CI=1.17-2.04), being involved in a physical fight (AOR=1.62, CI=1.2-2.2), being bullied (AOR=2.73, CI=2.25-3.31), feeling unsafe at school (AOR=1.53, CI=1.23-1.91), helmet use(never/rarely/sometimes) while driving a motorbike (AOR=1.69, CI=1.21-2.38) and drink and drive(AOR=2.28, CI=1.05-4.96). CONCLUSIONS: This study reported the injury as a significant public health concern in Nepal associated with several factors like physical attack, being involved in a physical fight, being bullied, feeling unsafe at school, helmet use while driving motorbike and drink and drive. The high prevalence of injury in Nepal suggests the application of appropriate prevention strategies.

Sociodemographic correlates of antenatal care visits in Nepal: results from Nepal Demographic and Health Survey 2016.

BACKGROUND: Good quality antenatal care visits are crucial to reduce maternal mortality and improve overall maternal and neonatal health outcomes. A previous study on antenatal care visits analyzed the nationally representative data of 2011; however, no studies have been conducted recently in Nepal. Therefore, we analyzed the sociodemographic correlates of the frequency and quality of antenatal care among Nepalese women from the nationally representative data of 2016. METHODS: We analyzed data obtained from the Nepal Demography Health Survey (2016) on antenatal care for 2761 women who had one or more births in the past three years. Our study defined 'good quality antenatal care' as at least a 75% score on a composite metric which was obtained by adding the weighted scores assigned to the twelve recommended components of antenatal care. We analyzed the factors associated with the frequency and quality of antenatal care by using multiple Poisson regression and multiple logistic regression. RESULTS: While 70% of the Nepalese women surveyed had at least four antenatal care visits, only 21% of these women received good-quality antenatal care. We found that the educated women (APR: 1.12; CI: 1.05-1.19) and the women of rich wealth index (APR: 1.27; CI: 1.18-1.37) were more likely to receive a higher number of antenatal visits. In contrast, women living in rural areas (APR: 0.92; CI: 0.87-0.98), and those who had more than two children (APR: 0.88; CI: 0.83-0.93) were less likely to receive a higher number of antenatal visits. Regarding the quality of antenatal care, educated women (AOR: 1.51; CI: 1.09-2.08), women who had educated husbands (AOR: 2.11; CI: 1.38-3.22), women of rich wealth index (AOR: 1.58; CI: 1.13-2.20) and women who had intended pregnancy (APR: 1.69; CI: 1.23-2.34), were more likely to receive good-quality antenatal care. CONCLUSIONS: Observing a wide variation in the coverage of different components of antenatal care, concerned stakeholders could tailor the interventions by focusing on components with lower use. Because we found an association of myriad sociodemographic factors with the frequency and quality of antenatal care, targeted interventions are necessary.

Correlates of bullying victimization among school adolescents in Nepal: Findings from 2015 Global School-Based Student Health Survey Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Bullying is an emerging risk factor for poor mental health outcomes adversely affecting children and adolescents. However, it has rarely caught the attention of the health and education sector due to lack of evidence in many countries including Nepal. This study aimed to assess the prevalence and factors associated with bullying behavior among adolescent students in Nepal. METHODS: We used nationally representative data from the Nepal Global School-Based Student Health Survey that involved two-stage cluster sampling design with the use of a standard set of self-administered questionnaires. Complex sample analysis was done to determine the prevalence and correlates of bullying among 6529 students of 68 schools studying in grade 7 to 11 using descriptive analysis and multivariable logistic regression. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of bullying among Nepalese school adolescents was 51% (55.67% in male and 46.17% in female). Bullied adolescents more commonly reported mental health problems with higher risk of loneliness (aOR 1.36, 95% CI: 1.12, 1.64), anxiety (aOR 2.04, 95% CI: 1.65, 2.52), suicide attempt (aOR 2.08, 95% CI: 1.54, 2.81), school absenteeism due to fear (aOR 1.72, 95% CI: 1.34, 2.21) and school truancy (aOR 1.48, 95% CI: 1.17, 1.87). A significant association was seen between bullying victimization and negative health behaviors like involvement in physical fights (aOR 3.64, 95% CI: 2.94, 4.51) and tobacco use (aOR 2.05, 95% CI: 1.15, 3.65). CONCLUSION: School bullying is significantly associated with mental health factors like loneliness, anxiety, suicide attempt, school absenteeism and risky behavioral factors like smokeless tobacco use and involvement in physical fight. The insights provided by these findings have important implications for planning anti-bullying strategies in school settings in the Nepalese context.

Prevalence and determinants of non-communicable diseases risk factors among reproductive aged women of Nepal: Results from Nepal Demographic Health Survey 2016.

INTRODUCTION: Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) are the major killer diseases globally. They share the common risk factors such as smoking, harmful use of alcohol, physical inactivity, and low fruits/vegetable consumption. The clustering of these risk factors multiplies the risk of developing NCDs. NCDs affect women inequitably causing significant threats to the health of women and future generations. But, the distribution and clustering of NCDs risk factors among Nepalese women are not adequately explored yet. This study aimed to assess the clustering and socio-demographic distribution of major NCD risk factors in Nepalese women. METHODS: We used the data of 6,396 women age 15 to 49 years from the recent Nepal Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS). The survey applied a stratified multi-stage cluster sampling method to select the eligible women participants from across Nepal. We analyzed data using the multiple Poisson regression and reported the adjusted prevalence ratio (APR). RESULTS: A total of 8.9% of participants were current smokers, 22.2% were overweight and obesity and 11.5% of the participants were hypertensive. Around 6% of participants had co-occurrence of two NCDs risk factors. Smoking, overweight and obesity and hypertension were significantly associated with age, education, province, wealth index, and ethnicity. Risk factors were more likely to cluster in women of age40-49 years (ARR = 2.95, 95%CI: 2.58-3.38), widow/separated (ARR = 3.09; 95% CI:2.24-4.28) and among Dalit women (ARR = 1.34; 95% CI:1.17-1.55). CONCLUSION: This study found that NCDs risk factors were disproportionately distributed by age, education, socio-economic status and ethnicity and clustered in more vulnerable groups such as widow/separated women and the Dalit women.

Correlates of continuum of maternal health services among Nepalese women: Evidence from Nepal Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey.

Continuum of Care (CoC) is an essential strategy to prevent maternal and child deaths where health services are arranged in a pathway throughout pregnancy, childbirth and after delivery. However, CoC is still a challenge in Nepal. This study aimed to investigate the correlates of CoC from pregnancy to the postnatal period in Nepalese women aged 15 to 49 years. Secondary analysis was performed on the data from Nepal Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey. This led to a sample size of 2086 women who had a live birth within two years preceding the survey. We constructed three outcome models and conducted multivariable logistic regression, to assess socio-economic and demographic correlates of CoC from pregnancy to childbirth to postnatal period. Overall, 41% of the women received Antenatal Care (ANC), delivery from Skilled Birth Attendant (SBA) as well as the Postnatal Care (PNC) during their most recent birth. Women from rural areas (aOR 0.25, 95%CI: 0.18, 0.36) had reduced odds of receiving CoC while women belonging to advantaged ethnic group (aOR 1.61, 95%CI: 1.18 2.19), from middle wealth status (aOR 2.56, 95%CI: 1.68, 3.91) and upper (aOR 4.50, 95%CI: 3.07, 6.59) wealth status, and women having access to media (aOR 1.76, 95%CI: 1.31, 2.37) had higher odds of receiving CoC from pregnancy to postnatal period. Having more than two births reduced the odds of CoC by 30% (aOR 0.70, 95%CI: 0.50, 0.98). These factors were also significantly associated with ANC services and the continuum from ANC to delivery SBA. The findings suggest that the majority of Nepalese women lack a continuity of care during their pregnancy and childbirth, and several socioeconomic factors affect the spectrum of CoC. Efforts to improve maternal health services utilization in a continuum require strategies that remove demand and supply barriers of health care utilization.

Factors associated with suicidal ideation and suicidal attempts among adolescent students in Nepal: Findings from Global School-based Students Health Survey.

INTRODUCTION: Suicide has been recognized as a major public health problem with high burden in low and middle income countries. Suicide has long lasting psychological trauma on friends and relatives in addition to loss of economic productivity. Although the need of high quality evidence is essential for designing suicide prevention program, Nepal lacks reliable evidence from nationally representative data. This study aimed to estimate the prevalence of suicidal ideation and attempt among adolescent students and identify the factors associated with them. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Total of 6,531 students of grade 7 to 11 from 74 schools representing all three ecological belts and five development regions participated in this cross sectional study. To select the representative sample from study population, two stage cluster sampling method was used. Standardized self-administered questionnaire were completed by participants. Multivariable logistic regression was done to identify the factors associated with suicidal ideation and attempt. RESULTS: Nearly 13.59% of the participants had considered suicide while 10.33% had attempted it. Food insecurity (OR = 2.32, CI = 1.62-3.32), anxiety (OR = 2.54, CI = 1.49-4.30), loneliness (OR = 2.51, CI = 1.44-4.36) and gender (OR = 1.39, CI = 1.03-1.89) were identified as risk factors of suicidal ideation. Anxiety (OR = 3.02, CI = 1.18-7.74), loneliness (OR = 2.19, CI = 1.28-3.73) truancy (OR = 1.99, CI = 1.40-2.82), cigarette use (OR = 3.13, CI = 1.36-7.23) and gender (OR = 1.60, CI = 1.07-2.39) were identified as risk factors of suicidal attempt. Having 3 or more close friends was found to have protective effect (OR = 0.35, CI = 0.16-0.75) against suicidal attempt. CONCLUSION: Study reveals relatively high prevalence of suicidal ideation and suicidal attempt among school-going adolescents in Nepal. Appropriate coping strategies for factors like anxiety, loneliness seem could be useful for preventing both suicidal ideation and attempt.

Prevalence and correlates of anemia among adolescents in Nepal: Findings from a nationally representative cross-sectional survey.

Anemia is regarded as major public health problem among adolescents in Low and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs) but there is limited primary data in many countries, including Nepal. This study investigated the prevalence and correlates of anemia in a nationally representative sample of adolescents within the 2014 National Adolescent Nutrition Survey in Nepal. A total of 3780 adolescents aged 10 to 19 years were selected from a cross-sectional survey through multi-stage cluster sampling. Structured interviews, anthropometric measurements and hemoglobin assessments of capillary blood were obtained. Bivariate and multivariable analyses were undertaken to compute the Adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR) for socio-demographic, behavioral and cluster characteristics. The overall prevalence of anemia was 31% (95%CI: 28.2, 33.5), 38% (95%CI: 34.0, 41.8) in female and 24% (95%CI: 20.6, 27.1) in male. The likelihood of anemia was significantly higher among older adolescents (aOR 1.75, 95%CI: 1.44, 2.13), females (aOR 2.02; 95%CI: 1.57, 2.60), among those who walk barefoot (aOR 1.78, 95%CI: 1.08, 2.94), and those residing in the Terai (aOR 1.80, 95%CI: 1.18, 2.77). Food consumption from more than four food groups (aOR 0.71, 95%CI: 0.57, 0.88) was protective against anemia. In conclusion, anemia is common in Nepali adolescents. Efforts to improve the nutritional status of this high-risk age group require nutrition that focus on eating habits, sanitation, iron supplementation and the treatment of hookworm infection.

Public Health Interventions for Control of Malaria in the Population Living in the Terai Region of Nepal.

Infectious diseases are a major problem for developing countries. Controlling and eradicating these diseases have remained a challenge because of the multitudes of social and environmental factors involved. However, a multi-sectoral and collective effort in dealing with these diseases has been shown to result in positive outcomes. This paper looks at the current situation of Malaria in Nepal and a population that is at high risk. It explains the impact that social and environmental determinants have on this target population. This review then critically examines the various possible public health interventions that could potentially help in the control of malaria in this high risk population, drawing from evidences and experiences reported from other countries with suggestions for adapting these interventions to the Nepali environment.

Factors enabling women with pelvic organ prolapse to seek surgery at mobile surgical camps in two remote districts in Nepal: a qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Pelvic organ prolapse (POP) is a major reproductive health problem in Nepal, though many women delay seeking treatment. To address this, the Nepalese government has been providing free vaginal hysterectomies with pelvic floor repair to women in mobile surgical camps. Studies exploring factors that enable women to attend these camp settings are limited. This study aimed to identify factors that affected women seeking surgical treatment for POP at mobile surgical camps. METHODS: The study used a qualitative approach. Twenty-one women with POP were recruited in two week-long mobile surgical camps held in two remote districts in Nepal during April and May 2013. Data were collected from individual face-to-face interviews and were analysed thematically. RESULTS: Three themes and six subthemes emerged from the analysis. The first theme, "health-system factors", suggests that accessibility and affordability of the treatment, and the supportive role of female community health volunteers facilitate women to seek treatment in the camp. The second theme, "factors related to sociocultural norms", reveals that reaching the end of reproductive years and approval by relevant influential family members empowers women to take up surgical treatment in the mobile surgical camp. Similarly, the third theme, "individual-level factors", includes women's experience of POP, such as worsening symptoms and fear of development of cancer, as factors enabling women to seek treatment. CONCLUSION: Enablers to seeking treatment at mobile surgical camps for women are related to the Nepalese health system, sociocultural norms and individual experiences of women. Each of these factors should be considered when conducting mobile surgical camps, if women's uptake of treatment is to be enhanced.