Effects of Salinity on Abiotic Aggregation of Organic Matter and Subsequent Microbial Responses.

Studies of marine aggregation have focused on determining formation rates of larger particles from small particles. However, it has been shown that particles can form from the dissolved phase, which includes colloidal material. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of aggregation on the chemical composition of both the dissolved and particulate phases in two salinity regimes: (1) the coast of Avery Point, Connecticut, USA (AP; salinity of 30.1 psu); (2) the estuary of Thames River, Connecticut, USA (TR; salinity of 5.0 psu). The samples were incubated on a roller table for two days in the dark at a speed of 8 rpm. The mixed collision mechanism of shear and differential sedimentation provided by the roller table enhanced the gross aggregation of particulate organic carbon (POC; 0.75 µM d-1 and 1.04 µM d-1 in AP and TR, respectively). Subsequent microbial degradation led to a negative net aggregation of POC (-5.20 µM d-1 and -1.19 µM d-1 in AP and TR, respectively). Although bacterial abundance remained in a narrow range in this study, the aggregation of organic matter (OM) enhanced planktonic community respiration (CR; CR increased 5.1 mg-C m-3 d-1 and 205.4 mg-C m-3 d-1 in AP and TR, respectively). The collision also led to a gross aggregation of uncharacterized particulate organic matter (POM) transferred from uncharacterized dissolved organic matter (DOM; 0.62 µM-C d-1 and 0.56 µM-C d-1 in AP and TR, respectively). The aggregated, uncharacterized POM could be biologically refractory. The C- and N-yields and enrichment factor (EF) analysis indicated that the organic substrate dynamics in this study were complicated.

Viral shunt in tropical oligotrophic ocean.

Viruses cause massive bacterial mortality and thus modulate bacteria-governed carbon transfer and nutrient recycling at global scale. The viral shunt hypothesis states the crucial role of viral lysis in retaining microbial carbon into food web processes, while its applicability to nature has not been well identified for over two decades. Here, we conducted nine diel surveys in the tropical South China Sea and suggested that the time scale adopted in sampling and system trophic status determine the "visibility" of the viral shunt in the field. Specifically, viral abundance (VA), bacterial biomass (BB), and bacterial specific growth rate (SGR) varied synchronously and presented the significant VA-BB and VA-SGR linkages at an hourly scale, which reveals direct interactions between viruses and their hosts. The differential responses of the viral shunt to temperature, i.e., looser VA-SGR coupling in warm and tighter VA-SGR coupling in cold environments, imply an altered carbon cycling in tropical oceans under climatic warming.

Impact of upwelling on phytoplankton blooms and hypoxia along the Chinese coast in the East China Sea.

This study evaluates the rarely observed phenomenon of the simultaneous occurrences of phytoplankton blooms, hypoxia, and upwelling along the Zhejiang coast in the East China Sea. Results show that the upwelling uplifted bottom water to 5-10 m below the surface. In the upwelling region, phytoplankton blooms (Chl a = 10.9 µg L-1) occurred and hypoxia or low-oxygen appeared below the surface water. High concentrations of nitrate and phosphate were regenerated in the hypoxic regions, corresponding with mean values (± SD) of 16.9 (± 1.5) and 0.90 (± 0.14) µM, respectively. The upwelling expanded the region of hypoxic water, which nearly reached the surface, thereby increasing the threat to marine life. In addition to fluvial nutrients, the upwelling of water with high nutrient levels, especially phosphates, can enhance phytoplankton blooms. The results suggest that hypoxia can become more severe due to further decomposition of bloom-derived organic matter after blooms crash.

Characterization of orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) interferon regulatory factor 4 regulated by heat shock factor 1 during heat stress in response to antiviral immunity.

Interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4), in conjunction with thermogenic regulation, is a negative regulator of immune responses. Therefore, we examined whether temperature changes regulated the antiviral response of IRF4 in nervous necrosis virus (NNV)-infected orange-spotted groupers. We found that osgIRF4 mRNA expression was responsive to poly I:C stimulation and NNV infection. In vitro overexpression of osgIRF4 caused a marked decrease in the promoter activity of the antiviral protein Mx1, and magnified NNV replication. Notably, we showed that the IAD domain of osgIRF4 exerted a dominant inhibitory effect on the Mx1 promoter. Furthermore, on exposure to high temperatures, the action of osgIRF4 was dependent on heat shock factor 1 (HSF1) expression. Additionally, small interfering RNA knockdown of HSF1 abrogated high temperature-mediated osgIRF4 activity. These findings suggest that osgIRF4 is an essential negative regulator of innate antiviral immunity and enhances viral replication during heat stress in the orange-spotted grouper.

Characterization of betanodavirus quasispecies influences on the subcellular localization and expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF).

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of variant coat proteins (CPs) from different quasispecies of betanodavirus on diverse aspects of nodavirus-induced pathogenesis. It is known that variant CPs can acquire either nuclear or cytoplasmic localization, depending on the nodavirus CP genotype, and this variation may arise during viral replication and influence the regulation of host and viral gene transcription. To investigate the role of these variant CPs in pathogenesis, six variant CP expression plasmids were constructed, each containing different quasispecies CP variants from nodavirus genotype red spotted grouper nervous necrosis virus (RGNNV). The CP expression plasmids were transiently transfected into grouper GF-1 cells. At different times, the cell cycle and cell proliferation were assayed using flow cytometry and methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) assays, respectively. The proportion of G2/M-phase GF-1 cells transfected with CP expression plasmids was higher than that of cells transfected with the blank plasmid, especially in regards to quasispecies 2 (QS2). The proliferation ratio of cells transfected with the CP expression plasmids was significantly higher than that of cells transfected with the blank plasmid, with the exception of QS6. We also found that the different quasispecies CPs downregulated the promoter activity of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) gene to different degrees. In addition, this is the first report showing the betanodavirus CP derived from different quasispecies of RGNNV provide evidence of a chronically nodavirus-infected grouper. Overall, this study represents the first comprehensive analysis of variant CPs from grouper with persistent nodavirus infections and their effects on different aspects of pathogenesis.

Cloning and characterisation of type I interferon receptor 1 in orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) for response to nodavirus infection.

Grouper is known as a highly economical teleost species in the Asian aquaculture industry; however, intensive culture activities easily cause disease outbreak, especially viral disease. For the prevention of viral outbreaks, interferon (IFN) is among the major defence systems being studied in different species. Fish type I IFNs are known to possess antiviral properties similar to mammalian type I IFNs. In order to stimulate antiviral function, IFN will bind to its cognate receptor, the type I interferon receptor (IFNAR), composed of heterodimeric receptor subunits known as IFNAR1 and IFNΑR2. The binding of type I interferon to receptors assists in the transduction of signals from the external to internal environments of cells to activate biological responses. In order to study the function of IFN, we first need to understand IFN receptors. In this study, we cloned and identified IFNAR1 in orange-spotted grouper (osgIFNAR1) and noted the up-regulated mRNA expression of the receptor and downstream effectors in the head kidney cells with cytokine treatment. The transcriptional expression of osgIFNAR1, which is characterised using polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly[I:C]) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) treatments, indicated the involvement of osgIFNAR1 in the immune response of grouper. The subcellular localisation of osgIFNAR1 demonstrated scattering across the grouper cell. Viral infection showed the negative feedback regulation of osgIFNAR1 in grouper larvae. Further loss of function of IFNAR1 showed a decreased expression of the virus. This study reported the identification of osgIFNAR1 and characterisation of receptor sensitivity towards immunostimulants, cytokine response, and viral challenge in the interferon pathway of orange-spotted grouper and possible different role of the receptor in viral production. Together, these results provide a frontline report of the potential function of osgIFNAR1 in the innate immunity of teleost.

Impact of Tilapia hepcidin 2-3 dietary supplementation on the gut microbiota profile and immunomodulation in the grouper (Epinephelus lanceolatus).

Hepcidin regulates iron homeostasis and host-defense mechanisms, while the hepcidin-like protein, Tilapia hepcidin (TH)2-3, functions as an antimicrobial peptide (AMP). Since AMP dietary supplements may be used as alternatives to antibiotics in livestock, we tested the effects of recombinant (r)TH2-3 as a dietary supplement in grouper aquaculture. rTH2-3 was produced by a Pichia pastoris expression system and exhibited thermostability and broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity. The feed conversion ratio and feed efficiency were determined in Epinephelus lanceolatus (grouper) fed with rTH2-3-supplemented diet for 28 days. In addition, grouper showed enhanced superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity after rTH2-3 feeding compared to regular-diet-fed fish. Gut microbiota analysis revealed that microbial diversity was enhanced by feeding grouper with 1% rTH2-3. After challenging grouper with Vibrio alginolyticus, differential regulation of immune-related genes in the liver and spleen was observed between the TH2-3 and regular-diet groups, including for genes associated with antimicrobial and pro-inflammatory functions, complement components, and major histocompatibility complex (Mhc). These findings suggest that overall immunity was improved. Thus, our results suggest long-term supplementation with rTH2-3 may be beneficial for aquacultured grouper. The beneficial effects of the supplement are likely based on changes in the commensal microbial community as well as immunomodulation.

Novel subunit vaccine with linear array epitope protect giant grouper against nervous necrosis virus infection.

Viral nervous necrosis caused by nervous necrosis virus (NNV) is one of the most severe diseases resulting in high fish mortality rates and high economic losses in the giant grouper industry. Various NNV vaccines have been evaluated, such as inactivated viruses, virus-like particles (VLPs), recombinant coat proteins, synthetic peptides of coat proteins, and DNA vaccines. However, a cheaper manufacturing process and effective protection of NNV vaccines for commercial application are yet to be established. Hence, the present study developed a novel subunit vaccine composed of a carrier protein, receptor-binding domain of Pseudomonas exotoxin A, and tandem-repeated NNV coat protein epitopes by using the structural basis of epitope prediction and the linear array epitope (LAE) technique. On the basis of the crystal structure of the NNV coat protein, the epitope was predicted from the putative target cell receptor-binding region to elicit neutralizing immune responses. The safety of the LAE vaccine was evaluated, and all vaccinated fish survived without any physiological changes. The coat protein-specific antibody titers in the vaccinated fish increased after vaccine administration and exerted NNV-neutralizing effects. The efficacy tests revealed that the relative percent survival (RPS) of LAE antigen formulated with adjuvant was above 72% and LAE vaccine was effective for preventing NNV infection in giant grouper. This study is the first to develop an NNV vaccine by using epitope repeats, which provided effective protection to giant grouper against virus infection. The LAE construct can be used as a vaccine design platform against various pathogenic diseases.

Viral infection upregulates myostatin promoter activity in orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides).

Myostatin is a negative regulator of myogenesis and has been suggested to be an important factor in the development of muscle wasting during viral infection. The objective of this study was to characterize the main regulatory element of the grouper myostatin promoter and to study changes in promoter activity due to viral stimulation. In vitro and in vivo experiments indicated that the E-box E6 is a positive cis-and trans-regulation motif, and an essential binding site for MyoD. In contrast, the E-box E5 is a dominant negative cis-regulatory. The characteristics of grouper myostatin promoter are similar in regulation of muscle growth to that of other species, but mainly through specific regulatory elements. According to these results, we conducted a study to investigate the effect of viral infection on myostatin promoter activity and its regulation. The nervous necrosis virus (NNV) treatment significantly induced myostatin promoter activity. The present study is the first report describing that specific myostatin motifs regulate promoter activity and response to viral infection.

Molecular cloning of orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) heat shock transcription factor 1 isoforms and characterization of their expressions in response to nodavirus.

Heat shock transcription factor 1 (HSF1) regulates heat shock proteins (HSPs), which assist in protein folding and inhibit protein denaturation following stress. HSF1 was firstly cloned from orange-spotted grouper and exists as two isoforms, one with (osgHSF1a) and one without (osgHSF1b) exon 11. Heat exposure increased the expression of osgHSF1b while cold exposure increased that of osgHSF1a. Both isoforms were mainly expressed in the brains, eyes, and fins. Expression of osgHSF1b was higher than osgHSF1a during development. Poly I:C and LPS could also induce osgHSF1 isoforms expression differentially. Exposure to nervous necrosis virus (NNV) increased the level of both osgHSF1 isoforms at 12 h. GF-1 cells with overexpression of osgHSF1 isoforms enhanced viral loads within 24 h, whereas both pharmacological inhibition and RNA interference of HSF1 reduced virus infection. This study shows that osgHSF1 can support the early stage of virus infection and provides a new insight into the molecular regulation of osgHSF1 between the influence of temperatures and immunity.

A member of the immunoglobulin superfamily, orange-spotted grouper novel immune gene EcVig, is induced by immune stimulants and type I interferon.

A novel grouper immune gene, EcVig was identified in orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides). We recently determined that EcVig expression can be induced by infection with nervous necrosis virus (NNV, an RNA virus), whereas NNV replication may be suppressed when EcVig was overexpressed. Although EcVig appeared to be involved in grouper antiviral activity, its immune effects have not been well characterized. In the present study, two PAMPs (pathogen-associated molecular patterns; lipopolysaccharides [LPS] and synthetic double-stranded RNA polyriboinosinic-polyribocytidylic acid [poly(I:C)]), as well as fish DNA virus (red sea bream iridovirus, RSIV; grouper iridovirus, GIV), were used to study EcVig responses in orange-spotted grouper. In addition, groupers were given recombinant type I interferon to determine whether EcVig expression was induced. Poly(I:C) rapidly induced substantial expression of EcVig, whereas LPS stimulation did not appear to have any effect in grouper intestine. Expression levels of total EcVig and other IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) were all significantly increased after RSIV and GIV infection. Furthermore, stimulation of recombinant type I IFN also increased EcVig expression. We conclude that EcVig may be a novel IFN-stimulated gene that demonstrates an antiviral immune response.

Analysis of interferon gamma protein expression in zebrafish (Danio rerio).

IFN-γ is a major effector cytokine, produced to induce type I immune responses. It has been cloned in several fish species including zebrafish, however to date few studies have looked at IFN-γ protein expression and bioactivity in fish. Hence, the current study focused on developing a monoclonal antibody (moAb) against zfIFN-γ. We show that the zfIFN-γ moAb specifically recognises E. coli produced recombinant IFN-γ protein and zfIFN-γ produced in transfected HEK293 cells, by Western blot analysis. Next we analysed the production of the native protein following expression induced by PHA stimulation of leukocytes in vitro or antigen re-stimulation in vivo. We show the IFN-γ protein is produced as a dimer, and that a good correlation exists between transcript expression levels and protein levels.

Nutrient pulses driven by internal solitary waves enhance heterotrophic bacterial growth in the South China Sea.

This study demonstrated the potential effects of internal waves (IWs) on heterotrophic bacterial activities for the first time. Nine anchored studies were conducted from 2009-2012 in the South China Sea areas with different physical conditions, i.e. areas subjected to elevation IWs, to depression IWs, and to weak/no IWs. The latter two areas were treated as the Control sites. Field survey results indicated that within the euphotic zone, the minima of the depth-averaged bacterial production (IBP; ∼1.0 mgC m-3 d-1 ) and growth rate (IBµ; ∼0.1 d-1 ) at all sites were similar. Except for one case, the maxima of IBP (6-12 mgC m-3 d-1 ) and IBµ (0.55-1.13 d-1 ) of the elevation IWs areas were ∼fivefolds higher than those of the Control sites (IBP 1.7-2.1 mgC m-3 d-1 ; IBµ 0.13-0.24 d-1 ). Replicate surveys conducted at the north-western area of the Dongsha atoll during spring-to-neap (NW1 survey) and neap-to-spring (NW2 survey) tide periods showed a great contrast to each other. Low variation and averages of IBµ in NW1 survey were similar to those of the Control sites, while those in NW2 were similar to the other elevation IWs sites with larger variation and higher averages of IBµ. This finding suggests that bacterial activities may be a function of the lunar fortnightly (14-day) cycle. Enrichment experiments suggested more directly that the limiting inorganic nutrients introduced by the elevation waves (EIWs) may contribute a higher IBµ within the euphotic zone.

Molecular cloning and characterization of orange-spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) CXC chemokine ligand 12.

Chemokines are a family of soluble peptides that can recruit a wide range of immune cells to sites of infection and disease. The CXCL12 is a chemokine that binds to its cognate receptor CXCR4 and thus involved in multiple physiological and pathophysiological processes. In this study, we cloned and characterized CXCL12 from Epinephelus coioides (osgCXCL12). We found that the open reading frame of osgCXCL12 consists of 98 amino acid residues with the small cytokine C-X-C domain located between residues 29 and 87. Higher expression levels for osgCXCL12 were detected at the kitting stage, compared with the prolarva and larva shape stages. The expression patterns revealed that osgCXCL12 may play a key role in early grouper development. We detected mRNA transcripts for osgCXCL12 in healthy tissues and found the highest osgCXCL12 expression in the head kidney. Furthermore, a time-course analysis revealed significantly increased osgCXCL12 and osgCXCR4 expression levels after the nervous necrosis virus (NNV) challenge. In addition, expression of osgCXCL12 was affected by injection with microbial mimics [LPS and poly(I:C)]. These results suggest that osgCXCL12 is associated with inflammatory and developmental processes in the grouper.

Crystal Structures of a Piscine Betanodavirus: Mechanisms of Capsid Assembly and Viral Infection.

Betanodaviruses cause massive mortality in marine fish species with viral nervous necrosis. The structure of a T = 3 Grouper nervous necrosis virus-like particle (GNNV-LP) is determined by the ab initio method with non-crystallographic symmetry averaging at 3.6 Å resolution. Each capsid protein (CP) shows three major domains: (i) the N-terminal arm, an inter-subunit extension at the inner surface; (ii) the shell domain (S-domain), a jelly-roll structure; and (iii) the protrusion domain (P-domain) formed by three-fold trimeric protrusions. In addition, we have determined structures of the T = 1 subviral particles (SVPs) of (i) the delta-P-domain mutant (residues 35-217) at 3.1 Å resolution; and (ii) the N-ARM deletion mutant (residues 35-338) at 7 Å resolution; and (iii) the structure of the individual P-domain (residues 214-338) at 1.2 Å resolution. The P-domain reveals a novel DxD motif asymmetrically coordinating two Ca2+ ions, and seems to play a prominent role in the calcium-mediated trimerization of the GNNV CPs during the initial capsid assembly process. The flexible N-ARM (N-terminal arginine-rich motif) appears to serve as a molecular switch for T = 1 or T = 3 assembly. Finally, we find that polyethylene glycol, which is incorporated into the P-domain during the crystallization process, enhances GNNV infection. The present structural studies together with the biological assays enhance our understanding of the role of the P-domain of GNNV in the capsid assembly and viral infection by this betanodavirus.

Regulatory factors controlling muscle mass: Competition between innate immune function and anabolic signals in regulation of atrogin-1 in Atlantic salmon.

Atrogin-1 is a conserved ubiquitin E3 ligase that is central to the early stages of skeletal and cardiac muscle wasting and degradation following starvation and inflammatory diseases. The control of protein turnover is different between endothermic and ectothermic animals reflecting the body energy requirements. Here we have characterised the promoter of the atrogin-1 gene in a phylogenetically diverse group of vertebrates and show conserved FOXO elements are present in all species examined. We have examined the gene expression responses in primary muscle cell culture to key immune modulators (IL-1ß, interferon type 1 and interferon γ) and to the anabolic hormone insulin like growth factor (IGF-1). We show that the IL-1ß and interferon type 1 increased atrogin-1 mRNA expression whereas IGF-1 suppressed atrogin-1 expression. The proximal promoter of salmon atrogin-1 was used to transfect primary muscle cell cultures and we found all three cytokines increased promoter activity whereas there was a decrease caused by IGF-1 exposure. We hypothesise that the main drivers for atrogin-1 expression are via the conserved FOXO site, but other transcription binding sites such as NFκB, STAT and IRFs may also be involved in a synergistic manner following immune stimulation when free amino acids need to be released for muscle protein reserves.

Genome sequence of Trichoderma virens FT-333 from tropical marine climate.

Environmental factors can cause changes in the content of the fungal genome during evolution. In this study, a fungus used as a biocontrol agent, Trichoderma virens FT-333 (from a tropical marine climate) has been isolated. The genome (38.6 Mbp; GC content, 49.43%) has a total of 12,751 proteins. Gene ontology terms (cellular component and molecular function) and KEGG analyses demonstrated the importance of the secretion function in FT-333. Compared to the other Trichoderma species, copy number of genes related to defense and nutrient utilization was variable.

Cordyceps s.l. (Ascomycetes) Species Used as Medicinal Mushrooms are Closely Related with Higher Ability to Produce Cordycepin.

Cordyceps s.l. (sensu lato) species have been used as herbal medicines; one of their main constituents is cordycepin. As genome sequencing techniques have become more cost-effective and more popular, more entomogenous fungal genomes have been sequenced and published. Here, we constructed a phylogenetic tree based on 18S rRNA sequences from Cordyceps species and analyzed the copy number of the key enzymes involved in biosynthesis of cordycepin from related fungal genomes that have been published. The sequences of the 18S rRNA gene were examined, and seven single nucleotides were found that could represent the evolutionary history of Cordyceps s.l. and which perfectly fit the phylogenetic tree. Their evolution was influenced mainly by host factors, rather than geographical location. The Cordyceps s.l. species that are used as herbal medicines are closely related in the phylogenetic tree. The major species for Chinese pharmaceutical markets, such as C. militaris and C. sinensis, have higher copy numbers of 5'-nucleotidase and adenylate kinase, and ribonucleotide reductases (RNRs), respectively. Moreover, absence of an RNR inhibitor may cause cordycepin accumulation. Presence of an RNR inhibitor may lead to lower cordycepin levels in fungal species in which no medicinal applications have been described. Cordycepin is not only an important secondary metabolite that is used as an herbal medicine, but it also has significance for understanding the evolution of these entomogenous species.

Rapid and amplification-free detection of fish pathogens by utilizing a molecular beacon-based microfluidic system.

Nervous necrosis virus (NNV) and iridovirus are highly infectious pathogens that can cause lethal diseases in various species of fish. These infectious diseases have no effective treatments and the mortality rate is over 80%, which could cause dramatic economic losses in the aquaculture industry. Conventional diagnostic methods of NNV or iridovirus infected fishes, such as virus culture, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and nucleic acid assays usually require time-consuming and complex procedures performed by specialized technicians with delicate laboratory facilities. Rapid, simple, accurate and on-site detection of NNV and iridovirus infections would enable timely preventive measures such as immediate sacrifice of infected fishes, and is therefore critically needed for the aquaculture industry. In this study, a microfluidic-based assay that employ magnetic beads conjugated with viral deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) capturing probes and fluorescent DNA molecular beacons were developed to rapidly detect NNV and iridovirus. Importantly, this new assay was realized in an integrated microfluidic system with a custom-made control system. With this approach, direct and automated NNV and iridovirus detection from infected fishes can be achieved in less than 30 min. Therefore, this molecular-beacon based microfluidic system presents a potentially promising tool for rapid diagnosis of fish pathogens in the field in the future.