Protein kinase R induced by type I interferons is a main regulator of reactive microglia in Zika virus infection.

Microglial cells are the phagocytic cells of the brain that under physiological conditions participate in brain homeostasis and surveillance. Under pathogenic states, microglia undergoes strong morphological and transcriptional changes potentially leading to sustained neuroinflammation, brain damage, and cognitive disorders. Postnatal and adult Zika virus (ZIKV) brain infection is characterized by the induction of reactive microglia associated with brain inflammation, synapse loss and neuropathogenesis. Contrary to neurons, microglial cells are not infected by ZIKV thus raising the question of the mechanism governing ZIKV-induced microglia's reactivity. In this work, we have questioned the role of exogenous, neuronal type I interferons (IFNs-I) in regulating ZIKV-induced microglia's reactivity. Primary cultured microglial cells were either treated with conditioned media from ZIKV-infected mature neurons or co-cultured with ZIKV-infected neurons. Using either an antibody directed against the IFNAR receptor that neutralizes the IFNs-I response or Ifnar-/-microglial cells, we demonstrate that IFNs-I produced by ZIKV-infected neurons are the main regulators of the phagocytic capacity and the pro-inflammatory gene expression profile of reactive, non-infected microglial cells. We identify protein kinase R (PKR), whose expression is activated by IFNs-I, as a major regulator of the phagocytic capacity, pro-inflammatory response, and morphological changes of microglia induced by IFNs-I while up-regulating STAT1 phosphorylation and IRF1 expression. Results obtained herein in vitro with primary cultured cells and in vivo in ZIKV-infected adult immunocompetent mice, unravel a role for IFNs-I and PKR in directly regulating microglia's reactivity that could be at work in other infectious and non-infectious brain pathologies.

Multiple Mechanisms of Action of Sulfodyne®, a Natural Antioxidant, against Pathogenic Effects of SARS-CoV-2 Infection.

Few therapeutic options are available to treat COVID-19. The KEAP1/NRF2 pathway, the major redox-responsive pathway, has emerged as a potential therapeutic target for COVID-19 as it regulates redox homeostasis and inflammation that are altered during SARS-CoV-2 infection. Here, we characterized the effects of NRF2-agonist Sulfodyne®, a stabilized natural Sulforaphane, in cellular and animal models of SARS-CoV-2 infection. In pulmonary or colonic epithelial cell lines, Sulfodyne® elicited a more efficient inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 replication than NRF2-agonists DMF and CDDO. This antiviral activity was not dependent on NRF2 but was associated with the regulation of several metabolic pathways, including the inhibition of ER stress and mTOR signaling, which are activated during SARS-CoV-2 infection. Sulfodyne® also decreased SARS-CoV-2 mediated inflammatory responses by inhibiting the delayed induction of IFNB1 and type I IFN-stimulated genes in infected epithelial cell lines and by reducing the activation of human by-stander monocytes recruited after SARS-CoV-2 infection. In K18-hACE2 mice infected with SARS-CoV-2, Sulfodyne® treatment reduced both early lung viral load and disease severity by fine-tuning IFN-beta levels. Altogether, these results provide evidence for multiple mechanisms that underlie the antiviral and anti-inflammatory activities of Sulfodyne® and pinpoint Sulfodyne® as a potent therapeutic agent against pathogenic effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Broad sarbecovirus neutralization by combined memory B cell antibodies to ancestral SARS-CoV-2.

Antibodies play a pivotal role in protecting from SARS-CoV-2 infection, but their efficacy is challenged by the continuous emergence of viral variants. In this study, we describe two broadly neutralizing antibodies cloned from the memory B cells of a single convalescent individual after infection with ancestral SARS-CoV-2. Cv2.3194, a resilient class 1 anti-RBD antibody, remains active against Omicron sub-variants up to BA.2.86. Cv2.3132, a near pan-Sarbecovirus neutralizer, targets the heptad repeat 2 membrane proximal region. When combined, Cv2.3194 and Cv2.3132 form a complementary SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody cocktail exhibiting a local dose-dependent synergy. Thus, remarkably robust neutralizing memory B cell antibodies elicited in response to ancestral SARS-CoV-2 infection can withstand viral evolution and immune escape. The cooperative effect of such antibody combination may confer a certain level of protection against the latest SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Susceptibility to Zika virus in a Collaborative Cross mouse strain is induced by Irf3 deficiency in vitro but requires other variants in vivo.

Zika virus (ZIKV) is a Flavivirus responsible for recent epidemics in Pacific Islands and in the Americas. In humans, the consequences of ZIKV infection range from asymptomatic infection to severe neurological disease such as Guillain-Barré syndrome or fetal neurodevelopmental defects, suggesting, among other factors, the influence of host genetic variants. We previously reported similar diverse outcomes of ZIKV infection in mice of the Collaborative Cross (CC), a collection of inbred strains with large genetic diversity. CC071/TauUnc (CC071) was the most susceptible CC strain with severe symptoms and lethality. Notably, CC071 has been recently reported to be also susceptible to other flaviviruses including dengue virus, Powassan virus, West Nile virus, and to Rift Valley fever virus. To identify the genetic origin of this broad susceptibility, we investigated ZIKV replication in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) from CC071 and two resistant strains. CC071 showed uncontrolled ZIKV replication associated with delayed induction of type-I interferons (IFN-I). Genetic analysis identified a mutation in the Irf3 gene specific to the CC071 strain which prevents the protein phosphorylation required to activate interferon beta transcription. We demonstrated that this mutation induces the same defective IFN-I response and uncontrolled viral replication in MEFs as an Irf3 knock-out allele. By contrast, we also showed that Irf3 deficiency did not induce the high plasma viral load and clinical severity observed in CC071 mice and that susceptibility alleles at other genes, not associated with the IFN-I response, are required. Our results provide new insight into the in vitro and in vivo roles of Irf3, and into the genetic complexity of host responses to flaviviruses.

SARS-CoV-2-related bat virus behavior in human-relevant models sheds light on the origin of COVID-19.

Bat sarbecovirus BANAL-236 is highly related to SARS-CoV-2 and infects human cells, albeit lacking the furin cleavage site in its spike protein. BANAL-236 replicates efficiently and pauci-symptomatically in humanized mice and in macaques, where its tropism is enteric, strongly differing from that of SARS-CoV-2. BANAL-236 infection leads to protection against superinfection by a virulent strain. We find no evidence of antibodies recognizing bat sarbecoviruses in populations in close contact with bats in which the virus was identified, indicating that such spillover infections, if they occur, are rare. Six passages in humanized mice or in human intestinal cells, mimicking putative early spillover events, select adaptive mutations without appearance of a furin cleavage site and no change in virulence. Therefore, acquisition of a furin site in the spike protein is likely a pre-spillover event that did not occur upon replication of a SARS-CoV-2-like bat virus in humans or other animals. Other hypotheses regarding the origin of the SARS-CoV-2 should therefore be evaluated, including the presence of sarbecoviruses carrying a spike with a furin cleavage site in bats.

Zika virus infection of mature neurons from immunocompetent mice generates a disease-associated microglia and a tauopathy-like phenotype in link with a delayed interferon beta response.

BACKGROUND: Zika virus (ZIKV) infection at postnatal or adult age can lead to neurological disorders associated with cognitive defects. Yet, how mature neurons respond to ZIKV remains substantially unexplored. METHODS: The impact of ZIKV infection on mature neurons and microglia was analyzed at the molecular and cellular levels, in vitro using immunocompetent primary cultured neurons and microglia, and in vivo in the brain of adult immunocompetent mice following intracranial ZIKV inoculation. We have used C57BL/6 and the genetically diverse Collaborative Cross mouse strains, displaying a broad range of susceptibility to ZIKV infection, to question the correlation between the effects induced by ZIKV infection on neurons and microglia and the in vivo susceptibility to ZIKV. RESULTS: As a result of a delayed induction of interferon beta (IFNB) expression and response, infected neurons displayed an inability to stop ZIKV replication, a trait that was further increased in neurons from susceptible mice. Alongside with an enhanced expression of ZIKV RNA, we observed in vivo, in the brain of susceptible mice, an increased level of active Iba1-expressing microglial cells occasionally engulfing neurons and displaying a gene expression profile close to the molecular signature of disease-associated microglia (DAM). In vivo as well as in vitro, only neurons and not microglial cells were identified as infected, raising the question of the mechanisms underlying microglia activation following brain ZIKV infection. Treatment of primary cultured microglia with conditioned media from ZIKV-infected neurons demonstrated that type-I interferons (IFNs-I) secreted by neurons late after infection activate non-infected microglial cells. In addition, ZIKV infection induced pathological phosphorylation of Tau (pTau) protein, a hallmark of neurodegenerative tauopathies, in vitro and in vivo with clusters of neurons displaying pTau surrounded by active microglial cells. CONCLUSIONS: We show that ZIKV-infected mature neurons display an inability to stop viral replication in link with a delayed IFNB expression and response, while signaling microglia for activation through IFNs-I secreted at late times post-infection. In the brain of ZIKV-infected susceptible mice, uninfected microglial cells adopt an active morphology and a DAM expression profile, surrounding and sometimes engulfing neurons while ZIKV-infected neurons accumulate pTau, overall reflecting a tauopathy-like phenotype.

Intranasal Exposure to Rift Valley Fever Virus Live-Attenuated Strains Leads to High Mortality Rate in Immunocompetent Mice.

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a pathogenic arthropod-borne virus that can cause serious illness in both ruminants and humans. The virus can be transmitted by an arthropod bite or contact with contaminated fluids or tissues. Two live-attenuated veterinary vaccines-the Smithburn (SB) and Clone 13 (Cl.13)-are currently used during epizootic events in Africa. However, their residual pathogenicity (i.e., SB) or potential of reversion (i.e., Cl.13) causes important adverse effects, strongly limiting their use in the field. In this study, we infected immunocompetent mice with SB or Cl.13 by a subcutaneous or an intranasal inoculation. Interestingly, we found that, unlike the subcutaneous infection, the intranasal inoculation led to a high mortality rate. In addition, we detected high titers and viral N antigen levels in the brain of both the SB- and Cl.13-infected mice. Overall, we unveil a clear correlation between the pathogenicity and the route of administration of both SB and Cl.13, with the intranasal inoculation leading to a stronger neurovirulence and higher mortality rate than the subcutaneous infection.

A mRNA Vaccine Encoding for a RBD 60-mer Nanoparticle Elicits Neutralizing Antibodies and Protective Immunity Against the SARS-CoV-2 Delta Variant in Transgenic K18-hACE2 Mice.

Two years into the COVID-19 pandemic there is still a need for vaccines to effectively control the spread of novel SARS-CoV-2 variants and associated cases of severe disease. Here we report a messenger RNA vaccine directly encoding for a nanoparticle displaying 60 receptor binding domains (RBDs) of SARS-CoV-2 that acts as a highly effective antigen. A construct encoding the RBD of the Delta variant elicits robust neutralizing antibody response, and also provides protective immunity against the Delta variant in a widely used transgenic mouse model. We ultimately find that the proposed mRNA RBD nanoparticle-based vaccine provides a flexible platform for rapid development and will likely be of great value in combatting current and future SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern.

Potent human broadly SARS-CoV-2-neutralizing IgA and IgG antibodies effective against Omicron BA.1 and BA.2.

Memory B-cell and antibody responses to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein contribute to long-term immune protection against severe COVID-19, which can also be prevented by antibody-based interventions. Here, wide SARS-CoV-2 immunoprofiling in Wuhan COVID-19 convalescents combining serological, cellular, and monoclonal antibody explorations revealed humoral immunity coordination. Detailed characterization of a hundred SARS-CoV-2 spike memory B-cell monoclonal antibodies uncovered diversity in their repertoire and antiviral functions. The latter were influenced by the targeted spike region with strong Fc-dependent effectors to the S2 subunit and potent neutralizers to the receptor-binding domain. Amongst those, Cv2.1169 and Cv2.3194 antibodies cross-neutralized SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern, including Omicron BA.1 and BA.2. Cv2.1169, isolated from a mucosa-derived IgA memory B cell demonstrated potency boost as IgA dimers and therapeutic efficacy as IgG antibodies in animal models. Structural data provided mechanistic clues to Cv2.1169 potency and breadth. Thus, potent broadly neutralizing IgA antibodies elicited in mucosal tissues can stem SARS-CoV-2 infection, and Cv2.1169 and Cv2.3194 are prime candidates for COVID-19 prevention and treatment.

A live measles-vectored COVID-19 vaccine induces strong immunity and protection from SARS-CoV-2 challenge in mice and hamsters.

Several COVID-19 vaccines have now been deployed to tackle the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, most of them based on messenger RNA or adenovirus vectors.The duration of protection afforded by these vaccines is unknown, as well as their capacity to protect from emerging new variants. To provide sufficient coverage for the world population, additional strategies need to be tested. The live pediatric measles vaccine (MV) is an attractive approach, given its extensive safety and efficacy history, along with its established large-scale manufacturing capacity. We develop an MV-based SARS-CoV-2 vaccine expressing the prefusion-stabilized, membrane-anchored full-length S antigen, which proves to be efficient at eliciting strong Th1-dominant T-cell responses and high neutralizing antibody titers. In both mouse and golden Syrian hamster models, these responses protect the animals from intranasal infectious challenge. Additionally, the elicited antibodies efficiently neutralize in vitro the three currently circulating variants of SARS-CoV-2.

Renal adaptive response to exposure to low doses of uranyl nitrate and sodium fluoride in mice.

BACKGROUND: Despite their differences in physicochemical properties, both uranium (U) and fluoride (F) are nephrotoxicants at high doses but their adverse effects at low doses are still the subject of debate. METHODS: This study aims to improve the knowledge of the biological mechanisms involved through an adaptive response model of C57BL/6 J mice chronically exposed to low priming doses of U (0, 10, 20 and 40 mg/L) or F (0, 15, 30 and 50 mg/L) and then challenged with acute exposure of 5 mg/kg U or 7.5 mg/kg NaF. RESULTS: We showed that an adaptive response occurred with priming exposures to 20 mg/L U and 50 mg/L F, with decreased levels of the biomarkers KIM-1 and CLU compared to those in animals that received the challenge dose only (positive control). The adaptive mechanisms involved a decrease in caspase 3/7 activities in animals exposed to 20 mg/L U and a decrease in in situ VCAM expression in mice exposed to 50 mg/L F. However, autophagy and the UPR were induced independently of priming exposure to U or F and could not be identified as adaptive mechanisms to U or F. CONCLUSION: Taken together, these results allow us to identify renal adaptive responses to U and F at doses of 20 and 50 mg/L, probably through decrease apoptosis and inflammatory cell recruitment.

Genetic Diversity of Collaborative Cross Mice Controls Viral Replication, Clinical Severity, and Brain Pathology Induced by Zika Virus Infection, Independently of Oas1b.

The explosive spread of Zika virus (ZIKV) has been associated with major variations in severe disease and congenital afflictions among infected populations, suggesting an influence of host genes. We investigated how genome-wide variants could impact susceptibility to ZIKV infection in mice. We first describe that the susceptibility of Ifnar1-knockout mice is largely influenced by their genetic background. We then show that Collaborative Cross (CC) mice, which exhibit a broad genetic diversity, in which the type I interferon receptor (IFNAR) was blocked by an anti-IFNAR antibody expressed phenotypes ranging from complete resistance to severe symptoms and death, with large variations in the peak and the rate of decrease in the plasma viral load, in the brain viral load, in brain histopathology, and in the viral replication rate in infected cells. The differences in susceptibility to ZIKV between CC strains correlated with the differences in susceptibility to dengue and West Nile viruses between the strains. We identified highly susceptible and resistant mouse strains as new models to investigate the mechanisms of human ZIKV disease and other flavivirus infections. Genetic analyses revealed that phenotypic variations are driven by multiple genes with small effects, reflecting the complexity of ZIKV disease susceptibility in the human population. Notably, our results rule out the possibility of a role of the Oas1b gene in the susceptibility to ZIKV. Altogether, the findings of this study emphasize the role of host genes in the pathogeny of ZIKV infection and lay the foundation for further genetic and mechanistic studies.IMPORTANCE In recent outbreaks, ZIKV has infected millions of people and induced rare but potentially severe complications, including Guillain-Barré syndrome and encephalitis in adults. While several viral sequence variants were proposed to enhance the pathogenicity of ZIKV, the influence of host genetic variants in mediating the clinical heterogeneity remains mostly unexplored. We addressed this question using a mouse panel which models the genetic diversity of the human population and a ZIKV strain from a recent clinical isolate. Through a combination of in vitro and in vivo approaches, we demonstrate that multiple host genetic variants determine viral replication in infected cells and the clinical severity, the kinetics of blood viral load, and brain pathology in mice. We describe new mouse models expressing high degrees of susceptibility or resistance to ZIKV and to other flaviviruses. These models will facilitate the identification and mechanistic characterization of host genes that influence ZIKV pathogenesis.

In Vivo Comparison of the Phenotypic Aspects and Molecular Mechanisms of Two Nephrotoxic Agents, Sodium Fluoride and Uranyl Nitrate.

Because of their nephrotoxicity and presence in the environment, uranium (U) and fluoride (F) represent risks to the global population. There is a general lack of knowledge regarding the mechanisms of U and F nephrotoxicity and the underlying molecular pathways. The present study aims to compare the threshold of the appearance of renal impairment and to study apoptosis and inflammation as mechanisms of nephrotoxicity. C57BL/6J male mice were intraperitoneally treated with a single dose of U (0, 2, 4 and 5 mg/kg) or F (0, 2, 5, 7.5 and 10 mg/kg) and euthanized 72 h after. Renal phenotypic characteristics and biological mechanisms were evaluated by urine biochemistry, gene/protein expression, enzyme activity, and (immuno)histological analyses. U and F exposures induced nephrotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner, and the highest concentrations induced severe histopathological alterations as well as increased gene expression and urinary excretion of nephrotoxicity biomarkers. KIM-1 gene expression was induced starting at 2 mg/kg U and 7.5 mg/kg F, and this increase in expression was confirmed through in situ detection of this biomarker of nephrotoxicity. Both treatments induced inflammation as evidenced by cell adhesion molecule expression and in situ levels, whereas caspase 3/7-dependent apoptosis was increased only after U treatment. Overall, a single dose of F or U induced histopathologic evidence of nephrotoxicity renal impairment and inflammation in mice with thresholds under 7.5 mg/kg and 4 mg/kg, respectively.