Correction: W.C. Mak, et al. Controlled Delivery of Human Cells by Temperature Responsive Microcapsules. J. Funct. Biomater. 2015, 6, 439-453.

Recently, we found a mistake in Figure 4D in our previously published paper[...].

Controlled Delivery of Human Cells by Temperature Responsive Microcapsules.

Cell therapy is one of the most promising areas within regenerative medicine. However, its full potential is limited by the rapid loss of introduced therapeutic cells before their full effects can be exploited, due in part to anoikis, and in part to the adverse environments often found within the pathologic tissues that the cells have been grafted into. Encapsulation of individual cells has been proposed as a means of increasing cell viability. In this study, we developed a facile, high throughput method for creating temperature responsive microcapsules comprising agarose, gelatin and fibrinogen for delivery and subsequent controlled release of cells. We verified the hypothesis that composite capsules combining agarose and gelatin, which possess different phase transition temperatures from solid to liquid, facilitated the destabilization of the capsules for cell release. Cell encapsulation and controlled release was demonstrated using human fibroblasts as model cells, as well as a therapeutically relevant cell line-human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). While such temperature responsive cell microcapsules promise effective, controlled release of potential therapeutic cells at physiological temperatures, further work will be needed to augment the composition of the microcapsules and optimize the numbers of cells per capsule prior to clinical evaluation.

The role of crosslinking in modification of the immune response elicited against xenogenic vascular acellular matrices.

We have used detergent and enzymatic extraction of natural arteries to produce an acellular matrix vascular prosthesis (AMVP). Implanted as an allograft in a canine model, this AMVP shows excellent handling characteristics, low thromboreactivity, no evidence of aneurysm, and exceptional graft patency in the peripheral vasculature. As a first step in the development of xenograft AMVPs, we processed caprine carotid arteries to AMVP and implanted them as femoral interposition grafts in dogs. Explanted xenografts at 4 weeks showed multifocal mixed inflammatory infiltrates and focal destruction of the medial elastin in the inflammatory foci. To further study the immune response to xenogenic AMVP, we implanted canine-derived AMVPs and fresh canine arteries for 4 weeks in a Lewis rat model. Extraction to AMVP markedly reduced the circulating antibody response to the xenogenic implants; however, histological analysis revealed that both xenograft arteries and AMVPs produced a marked immune response with penetration of mononuclear cells into the media and adventitia. To modify the immune response, we applied three crosslinking techniques to the canine AMVPs: glutaraldehyde, polyglycidyl ether, and carbodiimide. All crosslinkers significantly reduced degradation and cellular infiltration of the prostheses. However, crosslinking neither eliminated the chronic inflammatory response surrounding the implants nor reduced the humoral response to the xenogenic materials.

Abnormal aortic valve development in mice lacking endothelial nitric oxide synthase.

BACKGROUND: Endothelium-derived nitric oxide (NO) is produced by an oxidative reaction catalyzed by endothelial NO synthase (eNOS). NO plays a crucial role in controlling cell growth and apoptosis, as well as having well-characterized vasodilator and antithrombotic actions. More recently, endothelium-derived NO was shown to be involved in postdevelopmental vascular remodeling and angiogenesis, as well as in the formation of limb vasculature during embryogenesis. Therefore, we investigated the role of endothelium-derived NO during cardiovascular development using mice deficient in eNOS. METHODS AND RESULTS: We examined the hearts of 12 mature eNOS-deficient and 26 mature wild-type mice. Five of the mature eNOS-deficient mice had a bicuspid aortic valve; none of the 26 wild-type animals exhibited identifiable valvular or cardiac abnormalities. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed prominent eNOS expression localized to the endothelium lining the valve cusps of the aorta in mature wild-type mice; expression was localized to the myocardium and endothelial cell monolayer lining the valve leaflets in the developing embryo. CONCLUSIONS: These results show a strong association between eNOS deficiency and the presence of a bicuspid aortic valve; they provide the first molecular insight into one of the most common types of congenital cardiac abnormality.

Eliminating arterial pulsatile strain by external banding induces medial but not neointimal atrophy and apoptosis in the rabbit.

We have examined the role of vessel pulsation and wall tension on remodeling and intimal proliferation in the rabbit infrarenal abdominal aorta. A rigid perivascular polyethylene cuff was used to reduce vessel systolic diameter by 25%, producing a region of reduced circumferential strain. At 6 weeks postoperatively, reduced circumferential strain caused medial atrophy, with 45% reduction of medial area and 30% loss of medial smooth muscle cells. Apoptotic cell death was indicated by DNA fragmentation, propidium iodide staining, and cell morphology. Cuffing the aorta after balloon denudation produced medial atrophy but did not inhibit neointimal growth. At 1 week postoperatively, intimal thickness was slightly decreased in regions with reduced strain; however, intimal thickening in regions of reduced strain was not different from control segments at 3 weeks postoperatively (intimal area was 0.37 +/- 0.05 mm2 with reduced strain and 0.50 +/- 0.08 for controls, mean +/- SEM). We conclude that circumferential strain is a major factor controlling medial structure and cell number, whereas growth of the neointima after injury is not significantly affected by either reduced strain or extensive medial cell death. Vessel cuffing represents a new model of blood vessel remodeling in vivo that involves extensive smooth muscle cell apoptosis.

Sequential injury of the rabbit abdominal aorta induces intramural coagulation and luminal narrowing independent of intimal mass: extrinsic pathway inhibition eliminates luminal narrowing.

We hypothesized that activation of the coagulation cascade is involved in arterial remodeling in response to sequential injury. An active site-inhibited recombinant human factor VIIa (FVIIai) was used to inhibit tissue factor, the primary cofactor in the extrinsic pathway of coagulation, in a sequential balloon injury model of the rabbit abdominal aorta. Single balloon injury produced limited intimal thickening at 3 weeks (intimal area, 0.40+/-0.05 mm2) and no loss in luminal area (12.2+/-0.9 mm2 before injury and 12.1+/-0.9 mm2 at 6 weeks after injury). Sequential balloon injury, 3 weeks after the first balloon denudation, produced a progressive loss of lumen, with 22% and 47% loss of luminal area, respectively, at 3 and 6 weeks. Luminal loss could not be accounted for by intimal growth (at 3 weeks after sequential injury, the intimal area was 0.47+/-0.08 mm2, <4% of the initial luminal area). Sequential injury acutely produced extensive mural and intramural fibrin deposition. Treatment with FVIIai inhibited both the fibrin deposition and the chronic loss of lumen. At 3 weeks after sequential injury, luminal cross-sectional areas were 9.8+/-0.6 mm2 for control rabbits and 14.3+/-1.4 mm2 for FVIIai-treated rabbits. Neither neointimal area nor cell proliferation was reduced by FVIIai treatment. The intimal cell proliferation index 3 days after injury was 7.6+/-1.1% in control rabbits versus 5.8+/-1.1% in treated rabbits (P>0.05). These results indicate that tissue factor is an important mediator of coagulation in repeat injury and implicate the extrinsic coagulation cascade in a blood vessel remodeling response that is independent of neointimal growth but leads to extensive loss of lumen.

Biomechanical and ultrastructural comparison of cryopreservation and a novel cellular extraction of porcine aortic valve leaflets.

Heart valve substitutes of biological origin often fail by degenerative mechanisms. Many authors have hypothesized that mechanical fatigue and structural degradation are instrumental to in vivo failure. Since the properties of the structural matrix at implantation may predetermine failure, we have examined the ultrastructure, fracture, mechanics, and uniaxial high-strain-rate viscoelastic properties of: (1) fresh, (2) cryopreserved, and (3) cellular extracted porcine aortic valve leaflets. The cellular extraction process is being developed in order to reduce immunological attack and calcification. Cryopreservation causes cellular disruption and necrotic changes throughout the tissue, whereas extraction removes all cells and lipid membranes. Both processes leave an intact collagen and elastin structural matrix and preserve the high-strain-rate viscoelastic characteristics of the fresh leaflets. Extraction does cause a 20% reduction in the fracture tension and increases tissue extensibility, with the percent strain at fracture rising to 45.3 +/- 4 (mean +/- SEM) from 31.5 +/- 3 for fresh leaflets. However, extraction does preserve matrix structure and mechanics over the physiological loading range. Glutaraldehyde fixation produces increased extensibility, increased elastic behavior, and, when applied to extracted leaflets, it causes a marked drop in fracture tension, to 50% of that for fresh leaflets. The combination of extraction and fixation may lead to early degenerative failure. The cellular extraction technique alone may be a useful alternative to glutaraldehyde fixation in preparing bioprosthetic heart valves.

Influence of blockade at specific levels of the coagulation cascade on restenosis in a rabbit atherosclerotic femoral artery injury model.

BACKGROUND: The relation among the coagulation cascade, its individual proteins, and the response to vascular injury is largely undefined. We have evaluated the effect of four probes that block specific levels of coagulation cascade on neointimal hyperplasia in the atherosclerotic rabbit arterial injury model. METHODS AND RESULTS: Focal femoral atherosclerosis was induced by air-desiccation injury and hypercholesterolemic diet in 48 New Zealand White rabbits, followed by balloon angioplasty. Active-site inactivated factor VIIa (DEGR-VIIa), which blocks the binding of factor VIIa to tissue factor, was administered (n = 12 arteries) by intravenous bolus (1 mg/kg) at the time of balloon angioplasty and followed by infusion of 50 micrograms.kg-1.h-1 for 3 days; for the control (n = 13 arteries), 150 U heparin was injected as bolus and followed by infusion of saline at 50 microL.kg-1.min-1. Recombinant tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI), which binds factor Xa and inhibits the tissue factor-factor VIIa complex and factor Xa, was given as a 1 mg/kg bolus followed by 15 micrograms.kg-1.min-1 infusion for 3 days (n = 17 arteries). Recombinant tick anticoagulant peptide (TAP; n = 15 arteries) and hirudin (n = 14 arteries), which block factor Xa and thrombin, respectively, were administered as a 1 mg/kg bolus followed by 5 micrograms.kg-1.min-1 infusion for 3 days. These three groups had their own controls (n = 14 arteries). There were no differences among treatment groups in preangioplasty and postangioplasty minimal luminal diameter (MLD) by angiography. The mean MLD 21 days after balloon angioplasty was significantly different between control and DEGR-VIIa-treated groups (0.74 +/- 0.25 and 1.24 +/- 0.27 mm, respectively; P = .0001) and between the TFPI-treated group and others (0.88 +/- 0.21 mm for control, 0.97 +/- 0.22 mm for hirudin-treated, 0.98 +/- 0.14 mm for TAP-treated, and 1.32 +/- 0.21 mm for TFPI-treated arteries; P = .0001 by ANOVA). By quantitative histological analysis, the ratio of neointimal cross-sectional area compared with the area of internal elastic lamina in the DEGR-VIIa-treated group was significantly less than control (0.48 +/- 0.12 versus 0.67 +/- 0.12, P = .0001), and the ratio of neointimal cross-sectional area to the area demarcated by the internal elastic lamina of the TFPI-treated group was significantly reduced compared with the other groups (0.46 +/- 0.20 for TFPI-treated, 0.67 +/- 0.15 for hirudin-treated, 0.61 +/- 0.15 for TAP-treated, and 0.64 +/- 0.13 for control groups; P = .003). CONCLUSIONS: Treatment with DEGR-VIIa or TFPI for 3 days in this rabbit atherosclerotic injury model reduced angiographic restenosis and decreased neointimal hyperplasia compared with controls. These findings highlight the importance of early initiators of the extrinsic coagulation pathway, especially factor VII and tissue factor, in the response to arterial injury.

Acellular matrix: a biomaterials approach for coronary artery bypass and heart valve replacement.

We have developed a multistep detergent-enzymatic extraction process (involving hypotonic and hypertonic solutions, the detergents octyl-phenoxy-polyethoxyethanol and sodium dodecyl sulfate, as well as DNAse and RNAse) which, while inhibiting autolysis, removes all cells from tissues and, with them, cellular antigens together with lipids and more soluble glycosaminoglycans. What remains is acellular matrix with the structural proteins well conserved and normally arranged. Canine arteries extracted to acellular matrix were implanted as coronary artery bypass allografts in a canine model, without the use of cardiopulmonary bypass, and compared with autogenous saphenous veins. Of nine pilot acellular matrix implants, four were patent, as compared with four of seven saphenous vein grafts. All occlusions in both graft types occurred acutely soon after implantation, with almost all patent grafts followed up for 6 months. The acellular matrix allografts showed no inflammation and only minimal cellular repopulation. This model needs further development, but appears promising for preclinical evaluation. Canine aortic and pulmonic valves extracted to acellular matrix using a modification of our extraction process, eliminating the detergent sodium dodecyl sulfate, were implanted heterotopically as allografts in the left main pulmonary artery in dogs, a location chosen to avoid the need for cardiopulmonary bypass. At 1 month, two-dimensional echocardiography of six implants showed leaflet motion and 3- to 5-mm Hg transvalvular gradients. Explant histology of four valves at 1 month showed no inflammation, cellular repopulation at the base of the valve, and partial endothelialization.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Apoptosis (programmed cell death) in arteries of the neonatal lamb.

We have examined whether cell death contributes to postnatal remodeling of arteries in lambs. First, abdominal aortic smooth muscle cell proliferation rates fell from 2.87 +/- 0.08% per day at 3 days of age to 1.75 +/- 0.15% per day at 21 days. These proliferation rates would yield a 50% increase in DNA content in the absence of cell death. No increase in DNA content was observed (P < .05 for predicted versus measured accumulation); therefore, significant cell death was inferred. The same analysis did not indicate high cell-death rates in the carotid, renal, or iliac arteries; however, cell death was detected in situ by end-labeling partially degraded DNA with terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase or by nuclear labeling with propidium iodide, a fluorescent dye that permeates only nonviable cells. Nuclei were labeled in all arteries, although labeling was most frequent in the abdominal aorta, a vessel that regresses substantially after birth. Cell death was apoptotic because DNA extracted from arteries and end-labeled with [32P]dCTP produced a series of low molecular weight bands (DNA ladder) on an agarose gel, a hallmark of apoptosis. The ladder was strong for neonatal abdominal aorta but weak for other arteries. Only weak laddering was observed for fetal abdominal aortas in late gestation, confirming that high apoptosis rates in this vessel were initiated after birth. Intense DNA ladders and frequent in situ labeling indicated high rates of apoptosis in the postnatal intra-abdominal umbilical artery, another vessel that regresses after birth. We conclude that apoptosis contributes to postpartum arterial remodeling. This contribution is greatest in arteries that regress after birth.

Development of a pericardial acellular matrix biomaterial: biochemical and mechanical effects of cell extraction.

There is evidence to suggest that the cellular components of homografts and bioprosthetic xenografts may contribute to calcification or immunogenic reactions. A four-step detergent and enzymatic extraction process has been developed to remove cellular components from bovine pericardial tissue. The process results in an acellular matrix material consisting primarily of elastin, insoluble collagen, and tightly bound glycosaminoglycans. Light and electron microscopy confirmed that nearly all cellular constituents are removed without ultrastructural evidence of damage to fibrous components. Collagen denaturation temperatures remained unaltered. Biochemical analysis confirmed the retention of collagen and elastin and some differential extraction of glycosaminoglycans. Low strain rate fracture testing and high strain rate viscoelastic characterization showed that, with the exception of slightly increased stress relaxation, the mechanical properties of the fresh tissue were preserved in the pericardial acellular matrix. Crosslinking of the material in glutaraldehyde or poly(glycidyl ether) produced mechanical changes consistent with the same treatments of fresh tissue. The pericardial acellular matrix is a promising approach to the production of biomaterials for heart valve or cardiovascular patching applications.

Acellular matrix allograft small caliber vascular prostheses.

We have developed an acellular matrix vascular prosthesis (AMVP) made by detergent and enzymatic extraction of natural arteries, yielding a tissue framework of collagen and elastin from the original vessel, with preservation of the natural basement membrane at the blood flow surface. These biografts have excellent handling characteristics and suturability, as well as low thromboreactivity. Whole vessel static testing of circumferential compliance (8.9 +/- 1 [SEM] X 10(-2)% mmHg at 100 mmHg) revealed behavior virtually identical to the paired natural vessel from which each AMVP was derived in nine canine carotid arteries. We implanted 16 canine-origin AMVPs into nine dogs (12 femoral and three carotid arteries, and one infrarenal aorta) with no antithrombotic drugs. Angiographic patency was maintained in 15 of 16 (one occlusion within 3 days) for follow-up from 3 days to 6 years, with no aneurysm formation in three AMVP at over 4 1/2 years. Explant analysis revealed preservation of AMVP elastica and collagen with no inflammation or dystropic calcification of the AMVP, and almost total thrombus free flow surfaces. These results suggest that allograft AMVPs could achieve long-term patency equivalent to saphenous veins.

The glutaraldehyde-stabilized porcine aortic valve xenograft. I. Tensile viscoelastic properties of the fresh leaflet material.

The tensile viscoelastic properties of radial and circumferential strips of fresh porcine aortic valve leaflets have been examined and compared with the fiber architecture of the leaflets as seen in the scanning electron microscope. The leaflet material showed nonlinear viscoelasticity, largely independent of strain rate, and dependent on the degree of preconditioning by cyclic loading. Preconditioning to a stable stress-strain response could only be accomplished on 1-cm-long strips above a minimum width of 4 mm (circumferential) and 6 mm (radial). Preconditioning yielded a more elastic and extensible material with reduced hysteresis. The leaflets were markedly anisotropic. Circumferential strips were up to 8 times stronger and stiffer than radial strips, and displayed greater stress relaxation and less creep. The circumferential mechanical properties were due to well-aligned circumferential collagen bundles reinforcing the composite structure, while radial properties were due to a more random collagenous support throughout the leaflet. Despite the presence of a septal shelf on the right coronary leaflet, no mechanical differences could be discerned between leaflets.

The glutaraldehyde-stabilized porcine aortic valve xenograft. II. Effect of fixation with or without pressure on the tensile viscoelastic properties of the leaflet material.

We have examined the tensile viscoelastic properties of circumferential and radial strips of porcine aortic valve leaflets following fixation in glutaraldehyde and formaldehyde, with or without pressure. After aldehyde treatment, the radial strips remained weaker and less stiff than circumferential strips and responded slightly differently to the treatment. After fixation, with or without pressure, the radial strips showed large changes in stress-strain and hysteresis responses due to initial loading, and there was a twofold reduction in tensile strength and final stiffness. For strips in both directions, fixation without pressure produced doubled extensibility and a ramping stress-strain curve. Permanent (plastic) deformation of 5-20% occurred as a result of cyclic loading, stress relaxation, and creep experiments. Pressure fixation, however, produced little change in stress-strain results other than a simple shift to lower strain and produced no plasticity. Both methods of fixation reduced stress relaxation and creep. Mechanical test results are consistent with a loss of ground substance matrix during fixation. Reductions in tensile strength after fixation may be due to "riveting" of collagen geometry, producing local stress concentrations.