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The World Health Organisation recognised human papillomavirus (HPV) as the cause of multiple cancers, including head and neck cancers. HPV is a double-stranded DNA virus, and its viral gene expression can be controlled after infection by cellular and viral promoters. In cancer cells, the HPV genome is detected as either integrated into the host genome, episomal (extrachromosomal), or a mixture of integrated and episomal. Viral integration requires the breakage of both viral and host DNA, and the integration rate correlates with the level of DNA damage. Interestingly, patients with HPV-positive head and neck cancers generally have a good prognosis except for a group of patients with fully integrated HPV who show worst clinical outcomes. Those patients present with lowered expression of viral genes and limited infiltration of cytotoxic T cells. An impediment to effective therapy applications in the clinic is the sole testing for HPV positivity without considering the HPV integration status. This review will discuss HPV integration as a potential determinant of response to therapies in head and neck cancers and highlight to the field a novel therapeutic avenue that would reduce the cancer burden and improve patient survival.
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Neoplasias de Cabeza y Cuello , Infecciones por Papillomavirus , Humanos , Neoplasias de Cabeza y Cuello/virología , Neoplasias de Cabeza y Cuello/terapia , Infecciones por Papillomavirus/virología , Infecciones por Papillomavirus/complicaciones , Papillomaviridae/genética , Integración ViralRESUMEN
The tumour-cell based initiation of immune evasion project evaluated the role of Gipie in adenoid cystic carcinoma (ACC) and mucoepidermoid carcinoma (A-253), from ninety-six 3D-ACC and A-253-immune co-culture models using natural killer cells (NK), and Jurkat cells (JK). Abnormal ACC morphology was observed in 3D-ACC immune co-culture models. Gipie-silencing conferred a "lymphoblast-like" morphology to ACC cells, a six-fold increase in apoptotic cells (compared to unaltered ACC cells, P ≤ 0.0001), a two-fold decrease in T regulatory cells (FoxP3+/IL-2Rα+/CD25+) (P ≤ 0.0001), and a three-fold increase in activated NK cells (NKp30+/IFN-γ+) (P ≤ 0.0001) with significantly higher release of granzyme (P ≤ 0.001) and perforin (P ≤ 0.0001).
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Carcinoma Adenoide Quístico , Humanos , Carcinoma Adenoide Quístico/patología , Células Asesinas Naturales , Linfocitos T Reguladores , Células Jurkat , PerforinaRESUMEN
In heterogeneous head and neck cancer (HNC), subtype-specific treatment regimens are currently missing. An integrated analysis of patient HNC subtypes using single-cell sequencing and proteome profiles reveals an epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) signature within the epithelial cancer-cell population. The EMT signature coincides with PI3K/mTOR inactivation in the mesenchymal subtype. Conversely, the signature is suppressed in epithelial cells of the basal subtype which exhibits hyperactive PI3K/mTOR signalling. We further identify YBX1 phosphorylation, downstream of the PI3K/mTOR pathway, restraining basal-like cancer cell proliferation. In contrast, YBX1 acts as a safeguard against the proliferation-to-invasion switch in mesenchymal-like epithelial cancer cells, and its loss accentuates partial-EMT and in vivo invasion. Interestingly, phospho-YBX1 that is mutually exclusive to partial-EMT, emerges as a prognostic marker for overall patient outcomes. These findings create a unique opportunity to sensitise mesenchymal cancer cells to PI3K/mTOR inhibitors by shifting them towards a basal-like subtype as a promising therapeutic approach against HNC.
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Fosfatidilinositol 3-Quinasas , Proteínas Proto-Oncogénicas c-akt , Humanos , Fosfatidilinositol 3-Quinasas/genética , Fosfatidilinositol 3-Quinasas/metabolismo , Proteínas Proto-Oncogénicas c-akt/metabolismo , Transducción de Señal , Serina-Treonina Quinasas TOR/genética , Serina-Treonina Quinasas TOR/metabolismo , Proliferación Celular/genética , Células Epiteliales/metabolismo , Transición Epitelial-Mesenquimal/genética , Línea Celular Tumoral , Movimiento Celular , Proteína 1 de Unión a la Caja Y/genética , Proteína 1 de Unión a la Caja Y/metabolismoRESUMEN
Breakthrough research in the field of immune checkpoint inhibitors and the development of a human papilloma virus vaccine triggered a plethora of research in the field of cancer immunotherapy. Both had significant effects on the treatment of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. The advent of preclinical models and multidisciplinary approaches including bioinformatics, genetic engineering, clinical oncology, and immunology helped in the development of tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T-cell therapy. Here, we discuss different immunotherapies such as adoptive T-cell transfer, immune checkpoint inhibitors, interleukins, and cancer vaccines for the treatment of head and neck cancer. This review showcases the intrinsic relation between the understanding and implementation of basic biology and clinical practice. We also address potential limitations of each immunotherapy approach and the advantages of personalized immunotherapy. Overall, the aim of this review is to encourage further research in the field of immunotherapy for head and neck cancer.
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BACKGROUND: The gene encoding the transcription factor, Grainyhead-like 3 (Grhl3), plays critical roles in mammalian development and homeostasis. Grhl3-null embryos exhibit thoraco-lumbo-sacral spina bifida and soft-tissue syndactyly. Additional studies reveal that these embryos also exhibit an epidermal proliferation/differentiation imbalance. This manifests as skin barrier defects resulting in peri-natal lethality and defective wound repair. Despite these extensive analyses of Grhl3 loss-of-function models, the consequences of gain-of-function of this gene have been difficult to achieve. RESULTS: In this study, we generated a novel mouse model that expresses Grhl3 from a transgene integrated in the Rosa26 locus on an endogenous Grhl3-null background. Expression of the transgene rescues both the neurulation and skin barrier defects of the knockout mice, allowing survival into adulthood. Despite this, the mice are not normal, exhibiting a range of phenotypes attributable to dysregulated Grhl3 expression. In mice homozygous for the transgene, we observe a severe Shaker-Waltzer phenotype associated with hearing impairment. Micro-CT scanning of the inner ear revealed profound structural alterations underlying these phenotypes. In addition, these mice exhibit other developmental anomalies including hair loss, digit defects, and epidermal dysmorphogenesis. CONCLUSION: Taken together, these findings indicate that diverse developmental processes display low tolerance to dysregulation of Grhl3.
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Proteínas de Unión al ADN , Disrafia Espinal , Ratones , Animales , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/genética , Factores de Transcripción/metabolismo , Disrafia Espinal/genética , Epidermis/metabolismo , Ratones Noqueados , Mamíferos/metabolismoRESUMEN
Squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) are cancers of epithelial cells lining the aerodigestive and genitourinary tract [...].
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Grainyhead-like (GRHL) factors are essential, highly conserved transcription factors (TFs) that regulate processes common to both natural cellular behaviours during embryogenesis, and de-regulation of growth and survival pathways in cancer. Serving to drive the transcription, and therefore activation of multiple co-ordinating pathways, the three GRHL family members (GRHL1-3) are a critical conduit for modulating the molecular landscape that guides cellular decision-making processes during proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and migration. Animal models and in vitro approaches harbouring GRHL loss or gain-of-function are key research tools to understanding gene function, which gives confidence that resultant phenotypes and cellular behaviours may be translatable to humans. Critically, identifying and characterising the target genes to which these factors bind is also essential, as they allow us to discover and understand novel genetic pathways that could ultimately be used as targets for disease diagnosis, drug discovery and therapeutic strategies. GRHL1-3 and their transcriptional targets have been shown to drive comparable cellular processes in Drosophila, C. elegans, zebrafish and mice, and have recently also been implicated in the aetiology and/or progression of a number of human congenital disorders and cancers of epithelial origin. In this review, we will summarise the state of knowledge pertaining to the role of the GRHL family target genes in both development and cancer, primarily through understanding the genetic pathways transcriptionally regulated by these factors across disparate disease contexts.
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Proteínas de Unión al ADN , Neoplasias , Proteínas Represoras/metabolismo , Animales , Caenorhabditis elegans/metabolismo , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/genética , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/metabolismo , Drosophila/metabolismo , Transición Epitelial-Mesenquimal/genética , Ratones , Neoplasias/genética , Factores de Transcripción/genética , Factores de Transcripción/metabolismo , Pez Cebra/genética , Pez Cebra/metabolismoRESUMEN
The bacterial antigen, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and disruptions in calcium channels are independently known to influence oral cancer progression. Previously, we found that bacterial antigens, LPS and lipoteichoic acid (LTA) act as confounders during the action of capsaicin on Cal 27 oral cancer proliferation. As calcium channel drugs may affect oral cancer cell proliferation, we investigated the effect of ML218 HCl, a T-type voltage-gated calcium channel blocker, on the proliferation of Cal 27 oral cancer cells. We hypothesized that ML218 HCl could effectively reduce LPS-induced oral cancer cell proliferation. LPS and LTA antigens were added to Cal 27 oral cancer cells either prior to and/or concurrently with ML218 HCl treatment, and the efficacy of the treatment was evaluated by measuring Cal 27 proliferation, cell death and apoptosis. ML218 HCl inhibited oral cancer cell proliferation, increased apoptosis and cell death, but their efficacy was significantly reduced in the presence of bacterial antigens. ML218 HCl proved more effective than capsaicin in reducing bacterial antigen-induced Cal 27 oral cancer cell proliferation. Our results also suggest an interplay of proliferation factors during the bacterial antigens and calcium channel drug interaction in Cal 27. Bacterial antigen reduction of drug efficacy should be considered for developing newer pharmacological agents or testing the efficacy of the existing oral cancer chemotherapeutic agents. Finally, voltage gated calcium channel drugs should be considered for future oral cancer research.
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Antígenos Bacterianos/genética , Compuestos de Azabiciclo/farmacología , Benzamidas/farmacología , Proliferación Celular/efectos de los fármacos , Neoplasias de la Boca/tratamiento farmacológico , Antígenos Bacterianos/inmunología , Apoptosis/efectos de los fármacos , Capsaicina/farmacología , Línea Celular Tumoral , Humanos , Lipopolisacáridos/toxicidad , Neoplasias de la Boca/inducido químicamente , Neoplasias de la Boca/genética , Neoplasias de la Boca/patologíaRESUMEN
The oral epithelium is one of the fastest repairing and continuously renewing tissues. Stem cell activation within the basal layer of the oral epithelium fuels the rapid proliferation of multipotent progenitors. Stem cells first undergo asymmetric cell division that requires tightly controlled and orchestrated differentiation networks to maintain the pool of stem cells while producing progenitors fated for differentiation. Rapidly expanding progenitors subsequently commit to advanced differentiation programs towards terminal differentiation, a process that regulates the structural integrity and homeostasis of the oral epithelium. Therefore, the balance between differentiation and terminal differentiation of stem cells and their progeny ensures progenitors commitment to terminal differentiation and prevents epithelial transformation and oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). A recent comprehensive molecular characterization of OSCC revealed that a disruption of terminal differentiation factors is indeed a common OSCC event and is superior to oncogenic activation. Here, we discuss the role of differentiation and terminal differentiation in maintaining oral epithelial homeostasis and define terminal differentiation as a critical tumour suppressive mechanism. We further highlight factors with crucial terminal differentiation functions and detail the underlying consequences of their loss. Switching on terminal differentiation in differentiated progenitors is likely to represent an extremely promising novel avenue that may improve therapeutic interventions against OSCC.
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Oral cancer is a major global health problem with high incidence and low survival rates. The oral cavity contains biofilms as dental plaques that harbour both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial antigens, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA), respectively. LPS and LTA are known to stimulate cancer cell growth, and the bioactive phytochemical capsaicin has been reported to reverse this effect. Here, we tested the efficacy of oral cancer chemotherapy treatment with capsaicin in the presence of LPS, LTA or the combination of both antigens. LPS and LTA were administered to Cal 27 oral cancer cells prior to and/or concurrently with capsaicin, and the treatment efficacy was evaluated by measuring cell proliferation and apoptotic cell death. We found that while capsaicin inhibits oral cancer cell proliferation and metabolism (MT Glo assay) and increases cell death (Trypan blue exclusion assay and Caspase 3/7 expression), its anti-cancer effect was significantly reduced on cells that are either primed or exposed to the bacterial antigens. Capsaicin treatment significantly increased oral cancer cells' suppressor of cytokine signalling 3 gene expression. This increase was reversed in the presence of bacterial antigens during treatment. Our data establish a rationale for clinical consideration of bacterial antigens that may interfere with the treatment efficacy of oral cancer.
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Antígenos Bacterianos/efectos adversos , Capsaicina/farmacología , Neoplasias de la Boca/metabolismo , Transducción de Señal/efectos de los fármacos , Caspasa 3/metabolismo , Caspasa 7/metabolismo , Línea Celular Tumoral , Proliferación Celular/efectos de los fármacos , Supervivencia Celular/efectos de los fármacos , Regulación Neoplásica de la Expresión Génica/efectos de los fármacos , Humanos , Lipopolisacáridos/efectos adversos , Neoplasias de la Boca/tratamiento farmacológico , Neoplasias de la Boca/microbiología , Ácidos Teicoicos/efectos adversosRESUMEN
Ets homologous factor (EHF) is a member of the epithelial-specific Ets (ESE) family of transcription factors. To investigate its role in development and epithelial homeostasis, we generated a series of novel mouse strains in which the Ets DNA-binding domain of Ehf was deleted in all tissues (Ehf-/-) or specifically in the gut epithelium. Ehf-/- mice were born at the expected Mendelian ratio, but showed reduced body weight gain, and developed a series of pathologies requiring most Ehf-/- mice to reach an ethical endpoint before reaching 1 year of age. These included papillomas in the facial skin, abscesses in the preputial glands (males) or vulvae (females), and corneal ulcers. Ehf-/-mice also displayed increased susceptibility to experimentally induced colitis, which was confirmed in intestinal-specific Ehf knockout mice. Gut-specific Ehf deletion also impaired goblet cell differentiation, induced extensive transcriptional reprogramming in the colonic epithelium and enhanced Apc-initiated adenoma development. The Ets DNA-binding domain of EHF is therefore essential for postnatal homeostasis of the epidermis and colonic epithelium, and its loss promotes colonic tumour development.
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Transformación Celular Neoplásica/genética , Neoplasias del Colon/etiología , Epidermis/metabolismo , Genes APC , Homeostasis , Mucosa Intestinal/metabolismo , Factores de Transcripción/genética , Animales , Reprogramación Celular/genética , Neoplasias del Colon/metabolismo , Neoplasias del Colon/patología , Femenino , Regulación de la Expresión Génica , Células Caliciformes/metabolismo , Células Caliciformes/patología , Masculino , Ratones , Ratones Noqueados , Factores de Transcripción/metabolismoRESUMEN
Current therapies for treating heterogeneous cancers such as head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) are non-selective and are administered independent of response biomarkers. Therapy resistance subsequently emerges, resulting in increased cellular proliferation that is associated with loss of differentiation. Whether a cancer cell differentiation potential can dictate therapy responsiveness is still currently unknown. A multi-omic approach integrating whole-genome and whole-transcriptome sequencing with drug sensitivity was employed in a HNSCC mouse model, primary patients' data, and human cell lines to assess the potential of functional differentiation in predicting therapy response. Interestingly, a subset of HNSCC with effective GRHL3-dependent differentiation was the most sensitive to inhibitors of PI3K/mTOR, c-Myc, and STAT3 signaling. Furthermore, we identified the GRHL3-differentiation target gene Filaggrin (FLG) as a response biomarker and more importantly, stratified HNSCC subsets as treatment resistant based on their FLG mutational profile. The loss of FLG in sensitive HNSCC resulted in a dramatic resistance to targeted therapies while the GRHL3-FLG signature predicted a favorable patient prognosis. This study provides evidence for a functional GRHL3-FLG tumor-specific differentiation axis that regulates targeted therapy response in HNSCC and establishes a rationale for clinical investigation of differentiation-paired targeted therapy in heterogeneous cancers.
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Biomarcadores de Tumor/genética , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/genética , Proteínas Filagrina/genética , Neoplasias de Cabeza y Cuello/genética , Carcinoma de Células Escamosas de Cabeza y Cuello/genética , Factores de Transcripción/genética , Animales , Línea Celular Tumoral , Proliferación Celular , Regulación Neoplásica de la Expresión Génica , Humanos , Ratones , Trasplante de Neoplasias , Pronóstico , Transducción de Señal , Secuenciación del Exoma , Secuenciación Completa del GenomaRESUMEN
It is now clear that the most common solid cancer is squamous cell cancer (SCC) [...].
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Cleft lip and palate are common birth defects resulting from failure of the facial processes to fuse during development. The mammalian grainyhead-like (Grhl1-3) genes play key roles in a number of tissue fusion processes including neurulation, epidermal wound healing and eyelid fusion. One family member, Grhl2, is expressed in the epithelial lining of the first pharyngeal arch in mice at embryonic day (E)10.5, prompting analysis of the role of this factor in palatogenesis. Grhl2-null mice die at E11.5 with neural tube defects and a cleft face phenotype, precluding analysis of palatal fusion at a later stage of development. However, in the first pharyngeal arch of Grhl2-null embryos, dysregulation of transcription factors that drive epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) occurs. The aberrant expression of these genes is associated with a shift in RNA-splicing patterns that favours the generation of mesenchymal isoforms of numerous regulators. Driving the EMT perturbation is loss of expression of the EMT-suppressing transcription factors Ovol1 and Ovol2, which are direct GRHL2 targets. The expression of the miR-200 family of microRNAs, also GRHL2 targets, is similarly reduced, resulting in a 56-fold upregulation of Zeb1 expression, a major driver of mesenchymal cellular identity. The critical role of GRHL2 in mediating cleft palate in Zeb1-/- mice is evident, with rescue of both palatal and facial fusion seen in Grhl2-/-;Zeb1-/- embryos. These findings highlight the delicate balance between GRHL2/ZEB1 and epithelial/mesenchymal cellular identity that is essential for normal closure of the palate and face. Perturbation of this pathway may underlie cleft palate in some patients.
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Embrión de Mamíferos/metabolismo , Hueso Paladar/embriología , Hueso Paladar/metabolismo , Factores de Transcripción/deficiencia , Homeobox 1 de Unión a la E-Box con Dedos de Zinc/metabolismo , Animales , Región Branquial/embriología , Cadherinas/metabolismo , Cruzamientos Genéticos , Embrión de Mamíferos/ultraestructura , Epidermis/embriología , Epidermis/ultraestructura , Células Epiteliales/metabolismo , Transición Epitelial-Mesenquimal/genética , Epitelio/embriología , Femenino , Regulación del Desarrollo de la Expresión Génica , Masculino , Maxilar/embriología , Maxilar/patología , Mesodermo/embriología , Ratones , Ratones Noqueados , MicroARNs/genética , MicroARNs/metabolismo , Tamaño de los Órganos , Fenotipo , Embarazo , Empalme del ARN/genética , Factores de Transcripción/metabolismo , Homeobox 1 de Unión a la E-Box con Dedos de Zinc/deficienciaRESUMEN
Squamous cell carcinomas (SCC), including cutaneous SCCs, are by far the most frequent cancers in humans, accounting for 80% of all newly diagnosed malignancies worldwide. The old dogma that SCC develops exclusively from stem cells (SC) has now changed to include progenitors, transit-amplifying and differentiated short-lived cells. Accumulation of specific oncogenic mutations is required to induce SCC from each cell population. Whilst as fewer as one genetic hit is sufficient to induce SCC from a SC, multiple events are additionally required in more differentiated cells. Interestingly, the level of differentiation correlates with the number of transforming events required to induce a stem-like phenotype, a long-lived potential and a tumourigenic capacity in a progenitor, a transient amplifying or even in a terminally differentiated cell. Furthermore, it is well described that SCCs originating from different cells of origin differ not only in their squamous differentiation status but also in their malignant characteristics. This review summarises recent findings in cutaneous SCC and highlights transforming oncogenic events in specific cell populations. It underlines oncogenes that are restricted either to stem or differentiated cells, which could provide therapeutic target selectivity against heterogeneous SCC. This strategy may be applicable to SCC from different body locations, such as head and neck SCCs, which are currently still associated with poor survival outcomes.
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Carcinoma de Células Escamosas/tratamiento farmacológico , Carcinoma de Células Escamosas/etiología , Células Madre Neoplásicas/efectos de los fármacos , Neoplasias Cutáneas/tratamiento farmacológico , Neoplasias Cutáneas/etiología , Animales , Biomarcadores de Tumor , Carcinoma de Células Escamosas/patología , Regulación Neoplásica de la Expresión Génica/efectos de los fármacos , Estudio de Asociación del Genoma Completo , Humanos , Mediadores de Inflamación/metabolismo , Terapia Molecular Dirigida , Células Madre Neoplásicas/metabolismo , Células Madre Neoplásicas/patología , Transducción de Señal/efectos de los fármacos , Neoplasias Cutáneas/patología , Microambiente Tumoral/efectos de los fármacos , Microambiente Tumoral/genética , Microambiente Tumoral/inmunologíaRESUMEN
The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling pathway is a central regulator of metabolism in all cells. It senses intracellular and extracellular signals and nutrient levels, and coordinates the metabolic requirements for cell growth, survival, and proliferation. Genetic alterations that deregulate mTOR signalling lead to metabolic reprogramming, resulting in the development of several cancers including those of the head and neck. Gain-of-function mutations in EGFR, PIK3CA, and HRAS, or loss-of-function in p53 and PTEN are often associated with mTOR hyperactivation, whereas mutations identified from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) dataset that potentially lead to aberrant mTOR signalling are found in the EIF4G1, PLD1, RAC1, and SZT2 genes. In this review, we discuss how these mutant genes could affect mTOR signalling and highlight their impact on metabolic processes, as well as suggest potential targets for therapeutic intervention, primarily in head and neck cancer.
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Neoplasias de Cabeza y Cuello , Carcinoma de Células Escamosas de Cabeza y Cuello , Serina-Treonina Quinasas TOR , Animales , Línea Celular Tumoral , Mutación con Ganancia de Función , Neoplasias de Cabeza y Cuello/tratamiento farmacológico , Neoplasias de Cabeza y Cuello/genética , Neoplasias de Cabeza y Cuello/metabolismo , Humanos , Mutación con Pérdida de Función , Ratones , Transducción de Señal , Carcinoma de Células Escamosas de Cabeza y Cuello/tratamiento farmacológico , Carcinoma de Células Escamosas de Cabeza y Cuello/genética , Carcinoma de Células Escamosas de Cabeza y Cuello/metabolismo , Serina-Treonina Quinasas TOR/antagonistas & inhibidores , Serina-Treonina Quinasas TOR/genética , Serina-Treonina Quinasas TOR/fisiologíaRESUMEN
Identifying soluble factors that influence epidermal integrity is critical for the development of preventative and therapeutic strategies for disorders such as ichthyosis, psoriasis, dermatitis and epidermal cancers. The transcription factor Grainyhead-like 3 (GRHL3) is essential for maintaining barrier integrity and preventing development of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC); however, how loss of this factor, which in the skin is expressed exclusively within suprabasal epidermal layers triggers proliferation of basal keratinocytes, had thus far remained elusive. Our present study identifies thymus and activation-regulated chemokine (TARC) as a novel soluble chemokine mediator of keratinocyte proliferation following loss of GRHL3. Knockdown of GRHL3 in human keratinocytes showed that of 42 cytokines examined, TARC was the only significantly upregulated chemokine. Mouse skin lacking Grhl3 presented an inflammatory response with hallmarks of TARC activation, including heightened induction of blood clotting, increased infiltration of mast cells and pro-inflammatory T cells, increased expression of the pro-proliferative/pro-inflammatory markers CD3 and pSTAT3, and significantly elevated basal keratinocyte proliferation. Treatment of skin cultures lacking Grhl3 with the broad spectrum anti-inflammatory 5-aminosalicylic acid (5ASA) partially restored epidermal differentiation, indicating that abnormal keratinocyte proliferation/differentiation balance is a key driver of barrier dysfunction following loss of Grhl3, and providing a promising therapeutic avenue in the treatment of GRHL3-mediated epidermal disorders.
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Proliferación Celular , Quimiocina CCL17/metabolismo , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/metabolismo , Epidermis/metabolismo , Queratinocitos/metabolismo , Factores de Transcripción/metabolismo , Animales , Carcinoma de Células Escamosas/prevención & control , Línea Celular , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/genética , Técnicas de Inactivación de Genes , Humanos , Mesalamina/farmacología , Ratones , Ratones Endogámicos NOD , Ratones Noqueados/embriología , Ratones SCID , Piel/efectos de los fármacos , Piel/embriología , Piel/metabolismo , Neoplasias Cutáneas/prevención & control , Factores de Transcripción/genéticaRESUMEN
Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is a recurrent cancer that is prevalent in predisposed subjects such as immunosuppressed patients and patients being treated for other malignancies. Model systems to trial therapies at different stages of SCC development are lacking, therefore precluding efficient therapeutic interventions. Here, we have disrupted the expression of the tumor suppressor GRHL3 to induce loss of PTEN and activation of the PI3K/mTOR signaling pathway in mice and human skin, promoting aggressive SCC development. We then examined the potential for targeting PI3K/mTOR and an oncogenic driver miR-21, alone and in combination, for the prevention and treatment of SCC during the initiation, promotion/progression and establishment stages. Treatment with PI3K/mTOR inhibitors completely prevented tumor initiation, and these inhibitors significantly delayed the course of papilloma progression to malignancy. However, established SCC did not undergo any growth regression, indicating that this therapy is ineffective in established cancers. Mechanistically, the resistant SCCs displayed increased miR-21 expression in mice and humans where antagonists of miR-21 rescued expression levels of GRHL3/PTEN, but the combination of miR-21 antagonism with PI3K/mTOR inhibition resulted in acquired SCC resistance in part via c-MYC and OCT-4 upregulation. In conclusion, our data provide molecular evidence for the efficacy of targeting oncogenic drivers of SCC during the initiation and promotion stages and indicate that combination therapy may induce an aggressive phenotype when applied in the establishment stage.
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Carcinoma de Células Escamosas , Proteínas de Neoplasias/metabolismo , Fosfatidilinositol 3-Quinasas/metabolismo , Transducción de Señal , Neoplasias Cutáneas , Serina-Treonina Quinasas TOR/metabolismo , Animales , Carcinoma de Células Escamosas/genética , Carcinoma de Células Escamosas/metabolismo , Carcinoma de Células Escamosas/patología , Carcinoma de Células Escamosas/terapia , Humanos , Ratones , Ratones Noqueados , MicroARNs/genética , MicroARNs/metabolismo , Proteínas de Neoplasias/genética , Fosfatidilinositol 3-Quinasas/genética , ARN Neoplásico/genética , ARN Neoplásico/metabolismo , Neoplasias Cutáneas/genética , Neoplasias Cutáneas/metabolismo , Neoplasias Cutáneas/patología , Neoplasias Cutáneas/terapia , Serina-Treonina Quinasas TOR/genéticaRESUMEN
The grainyhead-like (grhl) transcription factors play crucial roles in craniofacial development, epithelial morphogenesis, neural tube closure, and dorso-ventral patterning. By utilising the zebrafish to differentially regulate expression of family members grhl2b and grhl3, we show that both genes regulate epithelial migration, particularly convergence-extension (CE) type movements, during embryogenesis. Genetic deletion of grhl3 via CRISPR/Cas9 results in failure to complete epiboly and pre-gastrulation embryonic rupture, whereas morpholino (MO)-mediated knockdown of grhl3 signalling leads to aberrant neural tube morphogenesis at the midbrain-hindbrain boundary (MHB), a phenotype likely due to a compromised overlying enveloping layer (EVL). Further disruptions of grhl3-dependent pathways (through co-knockdown of grhl3 with target genes spec1 and arhgef19) confirm significant MHB morphogenesis and neural tube closure defects. Concomitant MO-mediated disruption of both grhl2b and grhl3 results in further extensive CE-like defects in body patterning, notochord and somite morphogenesis. Interestingly, over-expression of either grhl2b or grhl3 also leads to numerous phenotypes consistent with disrupted cellular migration during gastrulation, including embryo dorsalisation, axial duplication and impaired neural tube migration leading to cyclopia. Taken together, our study ascribes novel roles to the Grhl family in the context of embryonic development and morphogenesis.
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Factores de Transcripción/fisiología , Proteínas de Pez Cebra/fisiología , Animales , Tipificación del Cuerpo/genética , Movimiento Celular , Proteínas de Unión al ADN/genética , Embrión de Mamíferos/metabolismo , Desarrollo Embrionario/fisiología , Regulación del Desarrollo de la Expresión Génica/genética , Mesencéfalo/metabolismo , Morfogénesis , Morfolinos/metabolismo , Tubo Neural/metabolismo , Fenotipo , Rombencéfalo/metabolismo , Transducción de Señal , Factores de Transcripción/metabolismo , Pez Cebra/genética , Pez Cebra/metabolismo , Proteínas de Pez Cebra/genética , Proteínas de Pez Cebra/metabolismoRESUMEN
The two main mechanisms that expand the proteomic output of eukaryotic genes are alternative splicing and alternative translation initiation signals. Despite being essential to generate isoforms of gene products that create functional diversity during development, the impact of these mechanisms on fine-tuning regulatory gene networks is still underappreciated. In this review, we use the Grainyhead-like (Grhl) family as a case study to illustrate the importance of isoforms when investigating transcription factor family function during development and disease, and highlight the potential for differential modulation of downstream target genes. We provide insights into the importance of considering alternative gene products when designing, undertaking, and analysing primary research, and the effect that isoforms may have on development. This review also covers known mutations in Grhl family members, and postulates how genetic changes may dictate transcriptional specificity between the Grhl family members. It also contrasts and compares the available literature on the function and importance of the Grhl isoforms, and highlights current gaps in our understanding of their regulatory gene networks in development and disease.