Pregnancy resumption following contraceptive discontinuation: Hazard survival analysis of the Indonesia Demographic and Health Survey Data 2007, 2012 and 2017.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this research is to estimate the probability of pregnancy resumption after discontinuing reversible contraceptives-pills, injectables, implants and IUDs, and to examine the factors associated with the resumption of fertility. METHOD: The study uses pregnancy calendar data from Indonesia Demographic and Health Surveys (IDHS) of 2007, 2012 and 2017. A hazard model survival method is used for estimating the time needed to resume pregnancy since discontinuing reversible contraceptives. Retrospective data on 4,573; 5,183 and 5,989 episodes of reversible contraceptive discontinuation at the three surveys respectively have been analysed. RESULTS: This study shows that women regained fecundity within one year of discontinuing IUD, pill, injectables or implants. Women using IUD could resume their pregnancy faster than those using implants, pills and injectables. Over the three IDHS 2007, 2012 and 2017 the age-specific percentages of women becoming pregnant after one year of contraceptive discontinuation vary between 72 and 85 for IUD, 75 and 81 for pills, 72 and 76 for implants and 64 and 67 for injectables, with the percentages being higher among younger women. The analysis further shows that length of contraceptive use, parity, prior sexually transmitted infections, knowledge of fertile period, household wealth status and place of residence have no impact on occurrence of pregnancy after contraceptive discontinuation. CONCLUSION: The analysis disproves a myth that reversible contraceptives make women infertile. Depending on the type of reversible contraceptive used, 65% to 85% of the women were able to conceive after one year of discontinuation.

The gap between desired and expected fertility among women in Iran: A case study of Tehran city.

The 2016 Iranian Census reveals that 14 of the country's 31 provinces have sub-replacement fertility. The province of Tehran, where a woman on average gives birth to 1.5 children during her reproductive period, has the lowest fertility in Iran. However, the 'two-child' norm prevails in the country and even a woman of young reproductive age still values having at least two children on average. In other words, there exists a gap between a woman's actual and desired fertility. This paper examines the demographic and socio-economic factors influencing the gap between actual and desired fertility in Tehran city based on a sample survey of 400 married women aged 15-49 years, conducted in 2015. The findings of the study reveal that the women of Tehran would be able to meet their fertility desires of two or more children if they were able to achieve their intended number of children they stated in the survey. However, should these women face any socio-economic constraint, they would be very likely to restrain their fertility desires and have fewer additional children than they initially intended, and thus continue with the sub-replacement fertility as being observed in Iran today.

COVID-19, individual wellbeing and multi-dimensional poverty in the state of South Australia.

Research efforts in the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic focused on the actual and potential impacts on societies, economies, sectors, and governments. Less attention was paid to the experiences of individuals and less still to the impact of COVID-19 on an individual's wellbeing. This research addresses this gap by utilising a holistic wellbeing framework to examine the impact of COVID-19 on the overall wellbeing of individuals in the Australian state of South Australia through an online survey. The research framework for the survey comprises six dimensions: psychological and emotional health, physical health, living standards, family and community vitality, governance, and ecological diversity and resilience. The results show that most respondents (71%) were able to maintain overall wellbeing during the pandemic. However, more than a half of the respondents could not maintain wellbeing in psychological and emotional health. Further examination of the drivers of inability to maintain overall wellbeing reveals that low-income individuals, younger respondents (aged 18-24) and women suffer disproportionate hardships. Defining poverty in terms of multi-dimensional deprivations in wellbeing enables a nuanced analysis of the unequal impacts of COVID-19 mitigation policies that can be used to improve policymaking.

Reluctance of women of lower socio-economic status to use maternal healthcare services - Does only cost matter?

In this paper we examine whether it is just the financial cost of maternal healthcare that prevents poor women from utilising free or low-cost government provided healthcare in Dhaka, Bangladesh, or there are other factors at play, in conjunction with poverty. To answer this question, we analyse the perceptions and experiences about the use of maternal health care for childbirth by a group of women residing in poor and lower socio-economic households in Dhaka. Data for this study were collected through in-depth interviews of 34 such women who have already had a child or had become pregnant at least once in the preceding five years. The findings of our analysis suggest that these women have a deeply rooted fear of medical intervention in childbirth for several perceived and practical reasons, including the fear of having to make undocumented payments, unfamiliarity with institutional processes, lack of social and family network support within their neighbourhood, concept of honour and shame [sharam], a culture of silence and inadequate spousal communication on health issues. As a result, even though low-cost health care facilities may be within their reach in terms of physical distance and affordable in terms of financial cost these women and their families are unwilling to deliver their babies at such health facilities. Therefore, in order to allay their perceived fear of hospital-based childbirth, one needs to consider factors other than financial cost and physical distance, and provide these women with factual information and culturally sensitive counselling.

Predictors of early initiation of breastfeeding in Indonesia: A population-based cross-sectional survey.

INTRODUCTION: Commencing breastfeeding within one hour of birth is defined as early initiation of breastfeeding (EIBF). Both the mother and child benefit from EIBF. This study aims to identify the predictors of EIBF among Indonesian women. METHODS: This paper analyses data from a weighted sample of 6,616 women collected at the Indonesia Demographic and Health Survey (IDHS) 2017.The frequency of EIBF is measured by the proportion of children born in the two years preceding the survey who received breastmilk within one hour of birth. The analysis uses bivariate and multivariate logistic regression for complex sample designs, adjusted for confounders to examine the relationship of EIBF with women's individual, household and community level characteristics. RESULTS: Overall, 57% (95% CI: 54.9%-58.2%) of the children born in the two years preceding the survey had EIBF. Statistically significant (p<0.05) predictors of EIBF are women's non-working status, second or higher order of the birth of the most recent child, average or large size of the most recent child at birth, poor status of the household and non-agricultural work of the woman's husband; while statistically highly significant (p<0.01) predictors are skin-to-skin contact with the new-born (OR: 2.62; 95% CI: 2.28-3.00), Caesarean deliveries (OR: 0.47; 95% CI: 0.40-0.56), and skilled birth attendants (OR: 1.83; 95% CI: 1.65-2.08). Caesarean deliveries reduce the likelihood of EIBF by half compared to vaginal deliveries. Women's age, education or rural-urban residence display no statistically significant relationship with EIBF. CONCLUSION: Skin-to-skin contact, mode of delivery and type of birth attendance exert the strongest influence on EIBF in Indonesia in 2017. EIBF should be continuously promoted and supported particularly among mothers who do not have early skin-to-skin contact with their new-born, who have Caesarean deliveries and who have no skilled birth attendant.

A critical account of the policy context shaping perinatal survival in Nepal: policy tension of socio-cultural versus a medical approach.

BACKGROUND: Nepal formulated a range of policies related to maternal and neonatal survival, especially after the year 2000. Nevertheless, Nepal's perinatal mortality remains high, particularly in disadvantaged regions. Policy analysis can uncover the underlying values, strategies and policy formulation processes that shape the potential to reduce in-country health inequities. This paper provides a critical account of the main policy documents relevant to perinatal survival in Nepal. METHODS: Six key policy documents covering the period 2000-2015 were reviewed using an adapted framework and were analyzed through qualitative content analysis. RESULTS: The analysis shows that the policies focused mainly on the system: improvement in provision of birthing facilities; targeting staff (Skilled Birth Attendants) and health service users by providing cash incentives to staff for bringing patients to services, and to users (pregnant women) to attend health institutions. Despite a growing focus on saving women and newborn babies, there is a poor policy focus and direction on preventing stillbirth. The policy documents were found to emphasize tensions between birthing at home and at health institutions on the one hand, and between strategies to provide culturally appropriate, woman-centered care in communities and medically orientated services on the other. Policies acknowledge the need to provide and address woman-centered care, equity, social inclusion, and a rights-based approach, and identify the community based approach as the mode of service delivery. Over and above this, all policy documents are aimed at the national level, and there is no specific policy direction for the separate ecological, cultural or geographic regions such as the mountainous region, which continues to exhibit higher mortality rates and has different cultural and demographic characteristics to the rest of Nepal. CONCLUSIONS: To better address the continuing high perinatal mortality rates, particularly in disadvantaged areas, national health policies should pay more attention to the inequity in healthcare access and in perinatal outcomes by integrating both stillbirth prevention and neonatal survival as policy agenda items. To ensure effective translation of policy into practice, it is imperative to tailor the strategies according to acknowledged policy values such as rights, inclusion and socio-cultural identity.

Health system barriers influencing perinatal survival in mountain villages of Nepal: implications for future policies and practices.

BACKGROUND: This paper aims to examine the health care contexts shaping perinatal survival in remote mountain villages of Nepal. Health care is provided through health services to a primary health care level-comprising district hospital, village health facilities and community-based health services. The paper discusses the implications for future policies and practice to improve health access and outcomes related to perinatal health. The study was conducted in two remote mountain villages in one of the most remote and disadvantaged mountain districts of Nepal. The district is reported to rank as the country's lowest on the Human Development Index and to have the worst child survival rates. The two villages provided a diversity of socio-cultural and health service contexts within a highly disadvantaged region. METHODS: The study findings are based on a qualitative study of 42 interviews with women and their families who had experienced perinatal deaths. These interviews were supplemented with 20 interviews with health service providers, female health volunteers, local stakeholders, traditional healers and other support staff. The data were analysed by employing an inductive thematic analysis technique. RESULTS: Three key themes emerged from the study related to health care delivery contexts: (1) Primary health care approach: low focus on engagement and empowerment; (2) Quality of care: poor acceptance, feeling unsafe and uncomfortable in health facilities; and (3) Health governance: failures in delivering health services during pregnancy and childbirth. CONCLUSIONS: The continuing high perinatal mortality rates in the mountains of Nepal are not being addressed due to declining standards in the primary health care approach, health providers' professional misbehaviour, local health governance failures, and the lack of cultural acceptance of formalised care by the local communities. In order to further accelerate perinatal survival in the region, policy makers and programme implementers need to immediately address these contextual factors at local health service delivery points.

A qualitative study about the gendered experiences of motherhood and perinatal mortality in mountain villages of Nepal: implications for improving perinatal survival.

BACKGROUND: We aim to examine the gendered contexts of poor perinatal survival in the remote mountain villages of Nepal. The study setting comprised two remote mountain villages from a mid-western mountain district of Nepal that ranks lowest on the Human Development Index (0.304), and is reported as having the lowest child survival rates in the country. METHODS: The findings are taken from a larger study of perinatal survival in remote mountain villages of Nepal, conducted through a qualitative methodological approach within a framework of social constructionist and critical theoretical perspectives. Data were collected through in-depth interviews with 42 women and their families, plus a range of healthcare providers (nurses/auxiliary nurses, female health volunteers, support staff, Auxiliary Health Worker and a traditional healer) and other stakeholders from February to June, 2015. Data were analysed with a comprehensive coding process utilising the thematic analysis technique. RESULTS: The social construction of gender is one of the key factors influencing poor perinatal survival in the villages in this study. The key emerging themes from the qualitative data are: (1) Gendered social construct and vulnerability for poor perinatal survival: child marriages, son preference and repeated child bearing; (2) Pregnancy and childbirth in intra-familial dynamics of relationships and power; and (3) Perception of birth as a polluted event: birth in Gotha (cowshed) and giving birth alone. CONCLUSIONS: Motherhood among women of a low social position is central to women and their babies experiencing vulnerabilities related to perinatal survival in the mountain villages. Gendered constructions along the continuum from pre-pregnancy to postnatal (girl settlement, a daughter-in-law, ritual pollution about mother and child) create challenges to ensuring perinatal survival in these villages. It is imperative that policies and programmes consider such a context to develop effective working strategies for sustained reduction of future perinatal deaths.

Religio-cultural factors contributing to perinatal mortality and morbidity in mountain villages of Nepal: Implications for future healthcare provision.

OBJECTIVE AND THE CONTEXT: This paper examines the beliefs and experiences of women and their families in remote mountain villages of Nepal about perinatal sickness and death and considers the implications of these beliefs for future healthcare provision. METHODS: Two mountain villages were chosen for this qualitative study to provide diversity of context within a highly disadvantaged region. Individual in-depth interviews were conducted with 42 women of childbearing age and their family members, 15 health service providers, and 5 stakeholders. The data were analysed using a thematic analysis technique with a comprehensive coding process. FINDINGS: Three key themes emerged from the study: (1) 'Everyone has gone through it': perinatal death as a natural occurrence; (2) Dewata (God) as a factor in health and sickness: a cause and means to overcome sickness in mother and baby; and (3) Karma (Past deeds), Bhagya (Fate) or Lekhanta (Destiny): ways of rationalising perinatal deaths. CONCLUSION: Religio-cultural interpretations underlie a fatalistic view among villagers in Nepal's mountain communities about any possibility of preventing perinatal deaths. This perpetuates a silence around the issue, and results in severe under-reporting of ongoing high perinatal death rates and almost no reporting of stillbirths. The study identified a strong belief in religio-cultural determinants of perinatal death, which demonstrates that medical interventions alone are not sufficient to prevent these deaths and that broader social determinants which are highly significant in local life must be considered in policy making and programming.

Housing Conditions Contribute to Underweight in Children: An Example From Rural Villages in Southeast Sulawesi, Indonesia.

OBJECTIVES: The prevalence of underweight in children under 5 years of age is anomalously high in Konawe District, Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. This state of affairs may be related to poor housing conditions, such as limited access to clean water, the absence of a sanitary latrine, and the use of poor housing materials. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effect of housing conditions on underweight in under-5 children in Konawe District. METHODS: This study was conducted in 2013 in 5 health centres in Konawe District, Southeast Sulawesi Province, and used a case-control study design. The study recruited 400 under-5 children, including 100 of whom were cases and 300 of whom were age-matched controls (1:3). Cases were underweight children, while the controls were children with a normal nutritional status. The independent variables were the availability and types of water and latrine facilities and housing materials (roof, wall, and floor). The statistical analysis used Cox regression. RESULTS: A lack of water availability (odds ratio [OR], 5.0; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.7 to 9.5; p<0.001), a lack of latrine availability in the home (OR, 2.5; 95% CI, 1.5 to 4.0; p<0.001), and poor-quality roofing materials (OR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.1 to 2.7; p<0.02) significantly contributed to underweight in children. In contrast, the walls and the floors did not contribute to under-5 year children being underweight (p=0.09 and p=0.71, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Sanitation facilities and roofing were identified as important factors to address in order to improve children's nutritional status. Children's health status was directly impacted by food intake via their nutritional status.