Virology-the path forward.

In the United States (US), biosafety and biosecurity oversight of research on viruses is being reappraised. Safety in virology research is paramount and oversight frameworks should be reviewed periodically. Changes should be made with care, however, to avoid impeding science that is essential for rapidly reducing and responding to pandemic threats as well as addressing more common challenges caused by infectious diseases. Decades of research uniquely positioned the US to be able to respond to the COVID-19 crisis with astounding speed, delivering life-saving vaccines within a year of identifying the virus. We should embolden and empower this strength, which is a vital part of protecting the health, economy, and security of US citizens. Herein, we offer our perspectives on priorities for revised rules governing virology research in the US.

SARS-CoV-2 Uses Nonstructural Protein 16 To Evade Restriction by IFIT1 and IFIT3.

Understanding the molecular basis of innate immune evasion by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is an important consideration for designing the next wave of therapeutics. Here, we investigate the role of the nonstructural protein 16 (NSP16) of SARS-CoV-2 in infection and pathogenesis. NSP16, a ribonucleoside 2'-O-methyltransferase (MTase), catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group to mRNA as part of the capping process. Based on observations with other CoVs, we hypothesized that NSP16 2'-O-MTase function protects SARS-CoV-2 from cap-sensing host restriction. Therefore, we engineered SARS-CoV-2 with a mutation that disrupts a conserved residue in the active site of NSP16. We subsequently show that this mutant is attenuated both in vitro and in vivo, using a hamster model of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Mechanistically, we confirm that the NSP16 mutant is more sensitive than wild-type SARS-CoV-2 to type I interferon (IFN-I) in vitro. Furthermore, silencing IFIT1 or IFIT3, IFN-stimulated genes that sense a lack of 2'-O-methylation, partially restores fitness to the NSP16 mutant. Finally, we demonstrate that sinefungin, an MTase inhibitor that binds the catalytic site of NSP16, sensitizes wild-type SARS-CoV-2 to IFN-I treatment and attenuates viral replication. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of SARS-CoV-2 NSP16 in evading host innate immunity and suggest a target for future antiviral therapies. IMPORTANCE Similar to other coronaviruses, disruption of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) NSP16 function attenuates viral replication in a type I interferon-dependent manner. In vivo, our results show reduced disease and viral replication at late times in the hamster lung, but an earlier titer deficit for the NSP16 mutant (dNSP16) in the upper airway. In addition, our results confirm a role for IFIT1 but also demonstrate the necessity of IFIT3 in mediating dNSP16 attenuation. Finally, we show that targeting NSP16 activity with a 2'-O-methyltransferase inhibitor in combination with type I interferon offers a novel avenue for antiviral development.

Virology under the Microscope-a Call for Rational Discourse.

Viruses have brought humanity many challenges: respiratory infection, cancer, neurological impairment and immunosuppression to name a few. Virology research over the last 60+ years has responded to reduce this disease burden with vaccines and antivirals. Despite this long history, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought unprecedented attention to the field of virology. Some of this attention is focused on concern about the safe conduct of research with human pathogens. A small but vocal group of individuals has seized upon these concerns - conflating legitimate questions about safely conducting virus-related research with uncertainties over the origins of SARS-CoV-2. The result has fueled public confusion and, in many instances, ill-informed condemnation of virology. With this article, we seek to promote a return to rational discourse. We explain the use of gain-of-function approaches in science, discuss the possible origins of SARS-CoV-2 and outline current regulatory structures that provide oversight for virological research in the United States. By offering our expertise, we - a broad group of working virologists - seek to aid policy makers in navigating these controversial issues. Balanced, evidence-based discourse is essential to addressing public concern while maintaining and expanding much-needed research in virology.

Virology under the Microscope-a Call for Rational Discourse.

Viruses have brought humanity many challenges: respiratory infection, cancer, neurological impairment and immunosuppression to name a few. Virology research over the last 60+ years has responded to reduce this disease burden with vaccines and antivirals. Despite this long history, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought unprecedented attention to the field of virology. Some of this attention is focused on concern about the safe conduct of research with human pathogens. A small but vocal group of individuals has seized upon these concerns - conflating legitimate questions about safely conducting virus-related research with uncertainties over the origins of SARS-CoV-2. The result has fueled public confusion and, in many instances, ill-informed condemnation of virology. With this article, we seek to promote a return to rational discourse. We explain the use of gain-of-function approaches in science, discuss the possible origins of SARS-CoV-2 and outline current regulatory structures that provide oversight for virological research in the United States. By offering our expertise, we - a broad group of working virologists - seek to aid policy makers in navigating these controversial issues. Balanced, evidence-based discourse is essential to addressing public concern while maintaining and expanding much-needed research in virology.

Virology under the Microscope-a Call for Rational Discourse.

Viruses have brought humanity many challenges: respiratory infection, cancer, neurological impairment and immunosuppression to name a few. Virology research over the last 60+ years has responded to reduce this disease burden with vaccines and antivirals. Despite this long history, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought unprecedented attention to the field of virology. Some of this attention is focused on concern about the safe conduct of research with human pathogens. A small but vocal group of individuals has seized upon these concerns - conflating legitimate questions about safely conducting virus-related research with uncertainties over the origins of SARS-CoV-2. The result has fueled public confusion and, in many instances, ill-informed condemnation of virology. With this article, we seek to promote a return to rational discourse. We explain the use of gain-of-function approaches in science, discuss the possible origins of SARS-CoV-2 and outline current regulatory structures that provide oversight for virological research in the United States. By offering our expertise, we - a broad group of working virologists - seek to aid policy makers in navigating these controversial issues. Balanced, evidence-based discourse is essential to addressing public concern while maintaining and expanding much-needed research in virology.

SARS-CoV-2 Uses Nonstructural Protein 16 to Evade Restriction by IFIT1 and IFIT3.

Understanding the molecular basis of innate immune evasion by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is an important consideration for designing the next wave of therapeutics. Here, we investigate the role of the nonstructural protein 16 (NSP16) of SARS-CoV-2 in infection and pathogenesis. NSP16, a ribonucleoside 2'- O methyltransferase (MTase), catalyzes the transfer of a methyl group to mRNA as part of the capping process. Based on observations with other CoVs, we hypothesized that NSP16 2'- O MTase function protects SARS-CoV-2 from cap-sensing host restriction. Therefore, we engineered SARS-CoV-2 with a mutation that disrupts a conserved residue in the active site of NSP16. We subsequently show that this mutant is attenuated both in vitro and in vivo , using a hamster model of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Mechanistically, we confirm that the NSP16 mutant is more sensitive to type I interferon (IFN-I) in vitro . Furthermore, silencing IFIT1 or IFIT3, IFN-stimulated genes that sense a lack of 2'- O methylation, partially restores fitness to the NSP16 mutant. Finally, we demonstrate that sinefungin, a methyltransferase inhibitor that binds the catalytic site of NSP16, sensitizes wild-type SARS-CoV-2 to IFN-I treatment. Overall, our findings highlight the importance of SARS-CoV-2 NSP16 in evading host innate immunity and suggest a possible target for future antiviral therapies. Importance: Similar to other coronaviruses, disruption of SARS-CoV-2 NSP16 function attenuates viral replication in a type I interferon-dependent manner. In vivo , our results show reduced disease and viral replication at late times in the hamster lung, but an earlier titer deficit for the NSP16 mutant (dNSP16) in the upper airway. In addition, our results confirm a role for IFIT1, but also demonstrate the necessity of IFIT3 in mediating dNSP16 attenuation. Finally, we show that targeting NSP16 activity with a 2'- O methyltransferase inhibitor in combination with type I interferon offers a novel avenue for antiviral development.

Curriculum Guidelines for Graduate and Undergraduate Virology Courses.

Curriculum guidelines for virology are needed to best guide student learning due to the continuous and ever-increasing volume of virology information, the need to ensure that undergraduate and graduate students have a foundational understanding of key virology concepts, and the importance in being able to communicate that understanding to both other virologists and nonvirologists. Such guidelines, developed by virology educators and the American Society for Virology Education and Career Development Committee, are described herein.

QTQTN motif upstream of the furin-cleavage site plays a key role in SARS-CoV-2 infection and pathogenesis.

The furin cleavage site (FCS), an unusual feature in the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, has been spotlighted as a factor key to facilitating infection and pathogenesis by increasing spike processing. Similarly, the QTQTN motif directly upstream of the FCS is also an unusual feature for group 2B coronaviruses (CoVs). The QTQTN deletion has consistently been observed in in vitro cultured virus stocks and some clinical isolates. To determine whether the QTQTN motif is critical to SARS-CoV-2 replication and pathogenesis, we generated a mutant deleting the QTQTN motif (ΔQTQTN). Here, we report that the QTQTN deletion attenuates viral replication in respiratory cells in vitro and attenuates disease in vivo. The deletion results in a shortened, more rigid peptide loop that contains the FCS and is less accessible to host proteases, such as TMPRSS2. Thus, the deletion reduced the efficiency of spike processing and attenuates SARS-CoV-2 infection. Importantly, the QTQTN motif also contains residues that are glycosylated, and disruption of its glycosylation also attenuates virus replication in a TMPRSS2-dependent manner. Together, our results reveal that three aspects of the S1/S2 cleavage site-the FCS, loop length, and glycosylation-are required for efficient SARS-CoV-2 replication and pathogenesis.

Mouse-adapted SARS-CoV-2 protects animals from lethal SARS-CoV challenge.

The emergence of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has resulted in a pandemic causing significant damage to public health and the economy. Efforts to understand the mechanisms of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) have been hampered by the lack of robust mouse models. To overcome this barrier, we used a reverse genetic system to generate a mouse-adapted strain of SARS-CoV-2. Incorporating key mutations found in SARS-CoV-2 variants, this model recapitulates critical elements of human infection including viral replication in the lung, immune cell infiltration, and significant in vivo disease. Importantly, mouse adaptation of SARS-CoV-2 does not impair replication in human airway cells and maintains antigenicity similar to human SARS-CoV-2 strains. Coupled with the incorporation of mutations found in variants of concern, CMA3p20 offers several advantages over other mouse-adapted SARS-CoV-2 strains. Using this model, we demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2-infected mice are protected from lethal challenge with the original Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (SARS-CoV), suggesting immunity from heterologous Coronavirus (CoV) strains. Together, the results highlight the use of this mouse model for further study of SARS-CoV-2 infection and disease.

Mouse Adapted SARS-CoV-2 protects animals from lethal SARS-CoV challenge.

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 has resulted in a worldwide pandemic causing significant damage to public health and the economy. Efforts to understand the mechanisms of COVID-19 disease have been hampered by the lack of robust mouse models. To overcome this barrier, we utilized a reverse genetic system to generate a mouse-adapted strain of SARS-CoV-2. Incorporating key mutations found in SARSCoV-2 variants, this model recapitulates critical elements of human infection including viral replication in the lung, immune cell infiltration, and significant in vivo disease. Importantly, mouse-adaptation of SARS-CoV-2 does not impair replication in human airway cells and maintains antigenicity similar to human SARS-CoV-2 strains. Utilizing this model, we demonstrate that SARS-CoV-2 infected mice are protected from lethal challenge with the original SARS-CoV, suggesting immunity from heterologous CoV strains. Together, the results highlight the utility of this mouse model for further study of SARS-CoV-2 infection and disease.

Limited Flavivirus Cross-Reactive Antibody Responses Elicited by a Zika Virus Deoxyribonucleic Acid Vaccine Candidate in Humans.

Zika virus (ZIKV) deoxyribonucleic acid vaccine VRC5283 encoding viral structural genes has been shown to be immunogenic in humans. Recognizing that antigenically related flaviviruses cocirculate in regions with ZIKV activity, we explored the degree of antibody cross-reactivity elicited by this vaccine candidate using genetically diverse flaviviruses. The antibody response of vaccinated individuals with no evidence of prior flavivirus infection or vaccine experience had a limited capacity to bind heterologous viruses. In contrast, vaccine-elicited antibodies from individuals with prior flavivirus experience had a greater capacity to bind, but not neutralize, distantly related flaviviruses. These findings suggest that prior flavivirus exposure shapes the humoral immune response to vaccination.

An Approach to Asynchronous Virtual Scientific Paper Discussions.

Effectively reading and interpreting scientific literature are fundamental skills for students pursuing degrees in STEM fields. In-person classes allow for real-time discussion and dissection of scientific literature; however, with increasing focus on virtual learning environments, alternative approaches are needed to promote student development of these skills. This manuscript presents suggestions for conducting paper discussions in asynchronous environments via learning management system (LMS) message boards. Modifications of this paper discussion activity for different class sizes, educational levels, and assignment goals are included.

The variant gambit: COVID-19's next move.

More than a year after its emergence, COVID-19, the disease caused by SARS-CoV-2, continues to plague the world and dominate our daily lives. Even with the development of effective vaccines, this coronavirus pandemic continues to cause a fervor with the identification of major new variants hailing from the United Kingdom, South Africa, Brazil, and California. Coupled with worries over a distinct mink strain that has caused human infections and potential for further mutations, SARS-CoV-2 variants bring concerns for increased spread and escape from both vaccine and natural infection immunity. Here, we outline factors driving SARS-CoV-2 variant evolution, explore the potential impact of specific mutations, examine the risk of further mutations, and consider the experimental studies needed to understand the threat these variants pose. In this review, Plante et al. examine SARS-CoV-2 variants including B.1.1.7 (UK), B.1.351 (RSA), P.1 (Brazil), and B.1.429 (California). They focus on what factors contribute to variant emergence, mutations in and outside the spike protein, and studies needed to understand the impact of variants on infection, transmission, and vaccine efficacy.

Loss of furin cleavage site attenuates SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-a new coronavirus that has led to a worldwide pandemic1-has a furin cleavage site (PRRAR) in its spike protein that is absent in other group-2B coronaviruses2. To explore whether the furin cleavage site contributes to infection and pathogenesis in this virus, we generated a mutant SARS-CoV-2 that lacks the furin cleavage site (ΔPRRA). Here we report that replicates of ΔPRRA SARS-CoV-2 had faster kinetics, improved fitness in Vero E6 cells and reduced spike protein processing, as compared to parental SARS-CoV-2. However, the ΔPRRA mutant had reduced replication in a human respiratory cell line and was attenuated in both hamster and K18-hACE2 transgenic mouse models of SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis. Despite reduced disease, the ΔPRRA mutant conferred protection against rechallenge with the parental SARS-CoV-2. Importantly, the neutralization values of sera from patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and monoclonal antibodies against the receptor-binding domain of SARS-CoV-2 were lower against the ΔPRRA mutant than against parental SARS-CoV-2, probably owing to an increased ratio of particles to plaque-forming units in infections with the former. Together, our results demonstrate a critical role for the furin cleavage site in infection with SARS-CoV-2 and highlight the importance of this site for evaluating the neutralization activities of antibodies.

Furin Cleavage Site Is Key to SARS-CoV-2 Pathogenesis.

SARS-CoV-2 has resulted in a global pandemic and shutdown economies around the world. Sequence analysis indicates that the novel coronavirus (CoV) has an insertion of a furin cleavage site (PRRAR) in its spike protein. Absent in other group 2B CoVs, the insertion may be a key factor in the replication and virulence of SARS-CoV-2. To explore this question, we generated a SARS-CoV-2 mutant lacking the furin cleavage site (ΔPRRA) in the spike protein. This mutant virus replicated with faster kinetics and improved fitness in Vero E6 cells. The mutant virus also had reduced spike protein processing as compared to wild-type SARS-CoV-2. In contrast, the ΔPRRA had reduced replication in Calu3 cells, a human respiratory cell line, and had attenuated disease in a hamster pathogenesis model. Despite the reduced disease, the ΔPRRA mutant offered robust protection from SARS-CoV-2 rechallenge. Importantly, plaque reduction neutralization tests (PRNT 50 ) with COVID-19 patient sera and monoclonal antibodies against the receptor-binding domain found a shift, with the mutant virus resulting in consistently reduced PRNT 50 titers. Together, these results demonstrate a critical role for the furin cleavage site insertion in SARS-CoV-2 replication and pathogenesis. In addition, these findings illustrate the importance of this insertion in evaluating neutralization and other downstream SARS-CoV-2 assays. IMPORTANCE: As COVID-19 has impacted the world, understanding how SARS-CoV-2 replicates and causes virulence offers potential pathways to disrupt its disease. By removing the furin cleavage site, we demonstrate the importance of this insertion to SARS-CoV-2 replication and pathogenesis. In addition, the findings with Vero cells indicate the likelihood of cell culture adaptations in virus stocks that can influence reagent generation and interpretation of a wide range of data including neutralization and drug efficacy. Overall, our work highlights the importance of this key motif in SARS-CoV-2 infection and pathogenesis. ARTICLE SUMMARY: A deletion of the furin cleavage site in SARS-CoV-2 amplifies replication in Vero cells, but attenuates replication in respiratory cells and pathogenesis in vivo. Loss of the furin site also reduces susceptibility to neutralization in vitro .

Author Correction: A SARS-like cluster of circulating bat coronaviruses shows potential for human emergence.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Human Norovirus Epitope D Plasticity Allows Escape from Antibody Immunity without Loss of Capacity for Binding Cellular Ligands.

Emergent strains of human norovirus seed pandemic waves of disease. These new strains have altered ligand binding and antigenicity characteristics. Study of viral variants isolated from immunosuppressed patients with long-term norovirus infection indicates that initial virus in vivo evolution occurs at the same antigenic sites as in pandemic strains. Here, cellular ligand binding and antigenicity of two cocirculating strains isolated from a patient with long-term norovirus infection were characterized. The isolated GII.4 viruses differed from previous strains and from each other at known blockade antibody epitopes. One strain had a unique sequence in epitope D, including loss of an insertion at residue 394, corresponding to a decreased relative affinity for carbohydrate ligands. Replacement of 394 with alanine or restoration of the contemporary strain epitope D consensus sequence STT improved ligand binding relative affinity. However, monoclonal antibody blockade of binding potency was only gained for the consensus sequence, not by the alanine insertion. In-depth study of unique changes in epitope D indicated that ligand binding, but not antibody blockade of ligand binding, is maintained despite sequence diversity, allowing escape from blockade antibodies without loss of capacity for binding cellular ligands.IMPORTANCE Human norovirus causes ∼20% of all acute gastroenteritis and ∼200,000 deaths per year, primarily in young children. Most epidemic and all pandemic waves of disease over the past 30 years have been caused by type GII.4 human norovirus strains. The capsid sequence of GII.4 strains is changing over time, resulting in viruses with altered ligand and antibody binding characteristics. The carbohydrate binding pocket of these strains does not vary over time. Here, utilizing unique viral sequences, we study how residues in GII.4 epitope D balance the dual roles of variable antibody binding site and cellular ligand binding stabilization domain, demonstrating that amino acid changes in epitope D can result in loss of antibody binding without ablating ligand binding. This flexibility in epitope D likely contributes to GII.4 strain persistence by both allowing escape from antibody-mediated herd immunity and maintenance of cellular ligand binding and infectivity.

A protective human monoclonal antibody targeting the West Nile virus E protein preferentially recognizes mature virions.

West Nile virus (WNV), a member of the Flavivirus genus, is a leading cause of viral encephalitis in the United States1. The development of neutralizing antibodies against the flavivirus envelope (E) protein is critical for immunity and vaccine protection2. Previously identified candidate therapeutic mouse and human neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) target epitopes within the E domain III lateral ridge and the domain I-II hinge region, respectively3. To explore the neutralizing antibody repertoire elicited by WNV infection for potential therapeutic application, we isolated ten mAbs from WNV-infected individuals. mAb WNV-86 neutralized WNV with a 50% inhibitory concentration of 2 ng ml-1, one of the most potently neutralizing flavivirus-specific antibodies ever isolated. WNV-86 targets an epitope in E domain II, and preferentially recognizes mature virions lacking an uncleaved form of the chaperone protein prM, unlike most flavivirus-specific antibodies4. In vitro selection experiments revealed a neutralization escape mechanism involving a glycan addition to E domain II. Finally, a single dose of WNV-86 administered two days post-infection protected mice from lethal WNV challenge. This study identifies a highly potent human neutralizing mAb with therapeutic potential that targets an epitope preferentially displayed on mature virions.

Bat Caliciviruses and Human Noroviruses Are Antigenically Similar and Have Overlapping Histo-Blood Group Antigen Binding Profiles.

Emerging zoonotic viral diseases remain a challenge to global public health. Recent surveillance studies have implicated bats as potential reservoirs for a number of viral pathogens, including coronaviruses and Ebola viruses. Caliciviridae represent a major viral family contributing to emerging diseases in both human and animal populations and have been recently identified in bats. In this study, we blended metagenomics, phylogenetics, homology modeling, and in vitro assays to characterize two novel bat calicivirus (BtCalV) capsid sequences, corresponding to strain BtCalV/A10/USA/2009, identified in Perimyotis subflavus near Little Orleans, MD, and bat norovirus. We observed that bat norovirus formed virus-like particles and had epitopes and receptor-binding patterns similar to those of human noroviruses. To determine whether these observations stretch across multiple bat caliciviruses, we characterized a novel bat calicivirus, BtCalV/A10/USA/2009. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that BtCalV/A10/USA/2009 likely represents a novel Caliciviridae genus and is most closely related to "recoviruses." Homology modeling revealed that the capsid sequences of BtCalV/A10/USA/2009 and bat norovirus resembled human norovirus capsid sequences and retained host ligand binding within the receptor-binding domains similar to that seen with human noroviruses. Both caliciviruses bound histo-blood group antigens in patterns that overlapped those seen with human and animal noroviruses. Taken together, our results indicate the potential for bat caliciviruses to bind histo-blood group antigens and overcome a significant barrier to cross-species transmission. Additionally, we have shown that bat norovirus maintains antigenic epitopes similar to those seen with human noroviruses, providing further evidence of evolutionary descent. Our results reiterate the importance of surveillance of wild-animal populations, especially of bats, for novel viral pathogens.IMPORTANCE Caliciviruses are rapidly evolving viruses that cause pandemic outbreaks associated with significant morbidity and mortality globally. The animal reservoirs for human caliciviruses are unknown; bats represent critical reservoir species for several emerging and zoonotic diseases. Recent reports have identified several bat caliciviruses but have not characterized biological functions associated with disease risk, including their potential emergence in other mammalian populations. In this report, we identified a novel bat calicivirus that is most closely related to nonhuman primate caliciviruses. Using this new bat calicivirus and a second norovirus-like bat calicivirus capsid gene sequence, we generated virus-like particles that have host carbohydrate ligand binding patterns similar to those of human and animal noroviruses and that share antigens with human noroviruses. The similarities to human noroviruses with respect to binding patterns and antigenic epitopes illustrate the potential for bat caliciviruses to emerge in other species and the importance of pathogen surveillance in wild-animal populations.