Family History in Parkinson's Disease: A National Cross-Sectional Study.

BACKGROUND: Family history of Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common finding in PD patients. However, a few studies have systematically examined this aspect. OBJECTIVES: We investigated the family history of PD patients, comparing demographic and clinical features between familial PD (fPD) and sporadic PD (sPD). METHODS: A cross-sectional study enrolling 2035 PD patients was conducted in 28 Italian centers. Clinical data and family history up to the third degree of kinship were collected. RESULTS: Family history of PD was determined in 21.9% of patients. fPD patients had earlier age at onset than sporadic patients. No relevant differences in the prevalence of motor and nonmotor symptoms were detected. Family history of mood disorders resulted more prevalently in the fPD group. CONCLUSIONS: fPD was found to recur more frequently than previously reported. Family history collection beyond the core family is essential to discover disease clusters and identify novel risk factors for PD.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder as a first manifestation of Ataxia with Oculomotor Apraxia type 2 due to a novel mutation of SETX gene.

BACKGROUND: Ataxia with oculomotor apraxia type 2 (AOA2) is an autosomal recessive disorder presenting with cerebellar ataxia, sensory-motor axonal neuropathy, oculomotor apraxia, cerebellar atrophy and high alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) serum level. AOA2 is due to coding mutations of the SETX gene, mapped to chromosome 9q34. Seldom noncoding mutations affecting RNA processing have been reported too. To date psychiatric symptoms have never been reported in AOA2. CASE PRESENTATION: A 19 years-old man came to our attention for progressive gait ataxia debuted five years earlier. His past medical history was unremarkable, while his parents were consanguineous. On neurological examination, he had bilateral horizontal gaze-evoked nystagmus with hypometric saccades and saccadic horizontal smooth pursuit, appendicular ataxia, limbs and trunk myoclonic involuntary movements with hands' dystonic postures and dance of the tendons. Psychological evaluation described intrusive and obsessive thoughts experienced by the patient, then diagnosed as obsessive-compulsive disorder. Blood tests detected an elevated AFP level. Brain MRI showed cerebellar atrophy, while electroneuromyography revealed an axonal sensory-motor polyneuropathy. In the suspicion of a pathology belonging to the autosomal recessive cerebellar ataxias (ARCA) spectrum disorder, a direct search of point mutations by whole-exome sequencing was performed revealing a novel biallelic variant in SETX gene (c.6208+2dupT), which was classified as likely pathogenic. CONCLUSION: The present case expands the genotypic and phenotypic spectrum of AOA2, reporting a novel likely pathogenic SETX mutation (c.6208+2dupT) and highlighting an early psychiatric involvement in AOA2, suggesting the need for psychiatric assessment in these neurologic patients.

Neurosteroid Levels in GBA Mutated and Non-Mutated Parkinson's Disease: A Possible Factor Influencing Clinical Phenotype?

Neurosteroids are pleiotropic molecules involved in various neurodegenerative diseases with neuroinflammation. We assessed neurosteroids' serum levels in a cohort of Parkinson's Disease (PD) patients with heterozygous glucocerebrosidase (GBA) mutations (GBA-PD) compared with matched cohorts of consecutive non-mutated PD (NM-PD) patients and healthy subjects with (GBA-HC) and without (NM-HC) GBA mutations. A consecutive cohort of GBA-PD was paired for age, sex, disease duration, Hoehn and Yahr stage, and comorbidities with a cohort of consecutive NM-PD. Two cohorts of GBA-HC and HC were also considered. Clinical assessment included the Movement Disorder Society revision of the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (MDS-UPDRS) and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). Serum samples were processed and analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled with the triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Twenty-two GBA-PD (males: 11, age: 63.68), 22 NM-PD (males: 11, age: 63.05), 14 GBA-HC (males: 8; age: 49.36), and 15 HC (males: 4; age: 60.60) were studied. Compared to NM-PD, GBA-PD showed more hallucinations and psychosis (p < 0.05, Fisher's exact test) and higher MDS-UPDRS part-II (p < 0.05). Most of the serum neurosteroids were reduced in both GBA-PD and NM-PD compared to the respective control cohorts, except for 5α-dihydroprogesterone. Allopregnanolone was the only neurosteroid significantly lower (p < 0.01, Dunn's test) in NM-PD compared to GBA-PD patients. Only in GBA-PD, allopregnanolone, and pregnanolone levels correlated (Spearman) with a more severe MDS-UPDRS part-III. Allopregnanolone levels also negatively correlated with MoCA scores, and pregnanolone levels correlated with more pronounced bradykinesia. This pilot study provides the first observation of changes in neurosteroid peripheral levels in GBA-PD. The involvement of the observed changes in the development of neuropsychological and motor symptoms of GBA-PD deserves further attention.

Increased glucosylsphingosine levels and Gaucher disease in GBA1-associated Parkinson's disease.

INTRODUCTION: Gaucher's disease (GD) is caused by biallelic mutations in the GBA1 gene, leading to reduced glucocerebrosidase (GCase) activity and substrate (glucosylceramide and glucosylsphingosine, GlcSph) accumulation. GBA1 variant carriers are at risk of Parkinson's disease (PD), but only those with biallelic mutations cross the threshold of GCase reduction, leading to substrate accumulation and GD. The link between GBA1 mutations, GD and PD is not fully understood. Here we aimed at reporting the results of a large PD population screening with dried blood spot tests for GD. METHODS: We measured GCase activity and GlcSph levels in 1344 PD patients with dried blood spot tests, and performed GBA1 genetic sequencing. RESULTS: While the GCase activity was reduced in GBA1-PD carriers compared to wild type PD, GlcSph was increased in GBA1-PD compared to GBA1-controls, regardless of the underlying type of GBA1 variant. 13.6 % and 0.4 % of PD patients had mono- or biallelic GBA1 mutations respectively. GCase deficiency, lipid accumulation and clinical manifestations of GD was detected in five PD patients with biallelic GBA1 mutations, of whom four had a risk combined with a GD causing variant. CONCLUSIONS: GlcSph appearing higher in PD may represent a reliable biomarker of the disease and deserves to be further investigated. This study highlights the importance of screening PD patients for possible underlying GD, which is a treatable condition that should not be missed. We diagnosed GD cases carrying a "risk" variant in one allele, which is an unprecedented finding deserving further investigation.

Supplementing Best Care with Specialized Rehabilitation Treatment in Parkinson's Disease: A Retrospective Study by Different Expert Centers.

Background: This is a retrospective longitudinal study comparing 374 patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) who were treated in centers offering a specialized program of enhanced rehabilitation therapy in addition to expert outpatient care to 387 patients with PD, who only received expert outpatient care at movement disorders centers in Italy. Methods: The data are from subjects recruited in the Parkinson's Outcome Project (POP) at six Italian centers that are part of a multicenter collaboration for care quality improvement (the Fresco Network). The effects were measured with a baseline and a follow-up clinical evaluation of the Timed-Up-and-Go test (TUG), Parkinson's Disease Questionnaire (PDQ-39), and Multidimensional Caregiver Strain Index (MCSI), the number of falls and hospitalizations for any cause. We used a generalized linear mixed model with the dependent variables being the response variable, which included the covariates demographics, evaluation, and treatment variables. Results: We found that the subjects who underwent specialized enhanced rehabilitation had a better motor outcome over time than those who were managed by expert neurologists but had participated in community programs for exercise and other allied health interventions. The greatest effects were seen in patients in the early stages of the disease with a high amount of vigorous exercise per week in the last six months. Similar effects were seen for PDQ39, MCSI, the number of falls, and hospitalization. Conclusions: Long-term benefits to motor function and the quality of life in patients with PD and burden reduction in their caregivers can be achieved through a systematic program of specialized enhanced rehabilitation interventions.

Unleashing the potential of mRNA therapeutics for inherited neurological diseases.

Neurological monogenic loss-of-function diseases are hereditary disorders resulting from gene mutations that decrease or abolish the normal function of the encoded protein. These conditions pose significant therapeutic challenges, which may be resolved through the development of innovative therapeutic strategies. RNA-based technologies, such as mRNA replacement therapy, have emerged as promising and increasingly viable treatments. Notably, mRNA therapy exhibits significant potential as a mutation-agnostic approach that can address virtually any monogenic loss-of-function disease. Therapeutic mRNA carries the information for a healthy copy of the defective protein, bypassing the problem of targeting specific genetic variants. Moreover, unlike conventional gene therapy, mRNA-based drugs are delivered through a simplified process that requires only transfer to the cytoplasm, thereby reducing the mutagenic risks related to DNA integration. Additionally, mRNA therapy exerts a transient effect on target cells, minimizing the risk of long-term unintended consequences. The remarkable success of mRNA technology for developing coronavirus disease 2019 vaccines has rekindled interest in mRNA as a cost-effective method for delivering therapeutic proteins. However, further optimization is required to enhance mRNA delivery, particularly to the CNS, while minimizing adverse drug reactions and toxicity. In this comprehensive review, we delve into past, present and ongoing applications of mRNA therapy for neurological monogenic loss-of-function diseases. We also discuss the promises and potential challenges presented by mRNA therapeutics in this rapidly advancing field. Ultimately, we underscore the full potential of mRNA therapy as a game-changing therapeutic approach for neurological disorders.

Genotype-phenotype correlation in PRKN-associated Parkinson's disease.

Bi-allelic pathogenic variants in PRKN are the most common cause of autosomal recessive Parkinson's disease (PD). 647 patients with PRKN-PD were included in this international study. The pathogenic variants present were characterised and investigated for their effect on phenotype. Clinical features and progression of PRKN-PD was also assessed. Among 133 variants in index cases (n = 582), there were 58 (43.6%) structural variants, 34 (25.6%) missense, 20 (15%) frameshift, 10 splice site (7.5%%), 9 (6.8%) nonsense and 2 (1.5%) indels. The most frequent variant overall was an exon 3 deletion (n = 145, 12.3%), followed by the p.R275W substitution (n = 117, 10%). Exon3, RING0 protein domain and the ubiquitin-like protein domain were mutational hotspots with 31%, 35.4% and 31.7% of index cases presenting mutations in these regions respectively. The presence of a frameshift or structural variant was associated with a 3.4 ± 1.6 years or a 4.7 ± 1.6 years earlier age at onset of PRKN-PD respectively (p < 0.05). Furthermore, variants located in the N-terminus of the protein, a region enriched with frameshift variants, were associated with an earlier age at onset. The phenotype of PRKN-PD was characterised by slow motor progression, preserved cognition, an excellent motor response to levodopa therapy and later development of motor complications compared to early-onset PD. Non-motor symptoms were however common in PRKN-PD. Our findings on the relationship between the type of variant in PRKN and the phenotype of the disease may have implications for both genetic counselling and the design of precision clinical trials.

Dominant VPS16 Pathogenic Variants: Not Only Isolated Dystonia.

BACKGROUND: VPS16 pathogenic variants have been recently associated with inherited dystonia. Most patients affected by dominant VPS16-related disease display early-onset isolated dystonia with prominent oromandibular, bulbar, cervical, and upper limb involvement, followed by slowly progressive generalization. CASES: We describe six newly reported dystonic patients carrying VPS16 mutations displaying unusual phenotypic features in addition to dystonia, such as myoclonus, choreoathetosis, pharyngospasm and freezing of gait. Response to bilateral Globus Pallidus Internus Deep Brain Stimulation (GPi-DBS) is reported in three of them, associated with significant improvement of dystonia but only minor effect on other hyperkinetic movements. Moreover, five novel pathogenic/likely pathogenic variants are described. CONCLUSIONS: This case collection expands the genetic and clinical spectrum of VPS16-related disease, prompting movement disorder specialists to suspect mutations of this gene not only in patients with isolated dystonia.

Are patients with GBA-Parkinson disease good candidates for deep brain stimulation? A longitudinal multicentric study on a large Italian cohort.

BACKGROUND: GBA variants increase the risk of developing Parkinson disease (PD) and influence its outcome. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a recognised therapeutic option for advanced PD. Data on DBS long-term outcome in GBA carriers are scarce. OBJECTIVE: To elucidate the impact of GBA variants on long-term DBS outcome in a large Italian cohort. METHODS: We retrospectively recruited a multicentric Italian DBS-PD cohort and assessed: (1) GBA prevalence; (2) pre-DBS clinical features; and (3) outcomes of motor, cognitive and other non-motor features up to 5 years post-DBS. RESULTS: We included 365 patients with PD, of whom 73 (20%) carried GBA variants. 5-year follow-up data were available for 173 PD, including 32 mutated subjects. GBA-PD had an earlier onset and were younger at DBS than non-GBA-PD. They also had shorter disease duration, higher occurrence of dyskinesias and orthostatic hypotension symptoms.At post-DBS, both groups showed marked motor improvement, a significant reduction of fluctuations, dyskinesias and impulsive-compulsive disorders (ICD) and low occurrence of most complications. Only cognitive scores worsened significantly faster in GBA-PD after 3 years. Overt dementia was diagnosed in 11% non-GBA-PD and 25% GBA-PD at 5-year follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Evaluation of long-term impact of GBA variants in a large Italian DBS-PD cohort supported the role of DBS surgery as a valid therapeutic strategy in GBA-PD, with long-term benefit on motor performance and ICD. Despite the selective worsening of cognitive scores since 3 years post-DBS, the majority of GBA-PD had not developed dementia at 5-year follow-up.

Speech, Gait, and Vestibular Function in Cerebellar Ataxia with Neuropathy and Vestibular Areflexia Syndrome.

(1) Background: Cerebellar ataxia with neuropathy and vestibular areflexia syndrome (CANVAS) is characterized by late-onset cerebellar ataxia, bilateral vestibulopathy, and sensory neuronopathy mostly due to biallelic RFC1 expansion. (2) Objectives: The aim of this case series is to describe vestibular, gait, and speech alterations in CANVAS via a systematic approach. (3) Methods: All patients (n = 5) underwent a standardized clinical-instrumental examination, including the perceptual and acoustic analysis of speech, instrumental gait, and balance analysis (posturographic data were acquired using a force plate [Kistler, Winterthur, Switzerland] while 3D gait analysis, inclusive of surface electromyography, was acquired using a motion capture system [SMART DX, BTS Bioengineering, Milan, Italy], a wireless electromyograph [FreeEMG, BTS Bioengineering, Milan, Italy]), and vestibular assessment with video-oculography. (4) Results: Five patients were included in the analysis: three females (patients A, B, C) and two males (patients D and E) with a mean age at evaluation of 62 years (SD ± 15.16, range 36-74). The mean age of symptoms' onset was 55.6 years (SD ± 15.04, range 30-68), and patients were clinically and instrumentally evaluated with a mean disease duration of 6.4 years (SD ± 0.54, range 6-7). Video-Frenzel examination documented spontaneous downbeat nystagmus enhanced on bilateral gaze in all patients, except for one presenting with slight downbeat nystagmus in the supine position. All patients exhibited different degrees of symmetrically reduced VOR gain for allsix semicircular canals on the video-head impulse test and an unexpectedly normal ("false negative") VOR suppression, consistent with combined cerebellar dysfunction and bilateral vestibular loss. Posturographic indices were outside their age-matched normative ranges in all patients, while 3D gait analysis highlighted a reduction in ankle dorsiflexion (limited forward rotation of the tibia over the stance foot during the stance phase of gait and fatigue of the dorsiflexor muscles) and variable out-of-phase activity of plantar flexors during the swing phase. Finally, perceptual-acoustic evaluation of speech showed ataxic dysarthria in three patients. Dysdiadochokinesis, rhythm instability, and irregularity were observed in the oral diadochokinesis task. (5) Conclusions: CANVAS is a recently discovered syndrome that is gaining more and more relevance within late-onset ataxias. In this paper, we aimed to contribute to a detailed description of its phenotype.

Harmonizing Genetic Testing for Parkinson's Disease: Results of the PARKNET Multicentric Study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Early-onset Parkinson's disease (EOPD) commonly recognizes a genetic basis; thus, patients with EOPD are often addressed to diagnostic testing based on next-generation sequencing (NGS) of PD-associated multigene panels. However, NGS interpretation can be challenging in a diagnostic setting, and few studies have addressed this issue so far. METHODS: We retrospectively collected data from 648 patients with PD with age at onset younger than 55 years who underwent NGS of a minimal shared panel of 15 PD-related genes, as well as PD-multiplex ligation-dependent probe amplification in eight Italian diagnostic laboratories. Data included a minimal clinical dataset, the complete list of variants included in the diagnostic report, and final interpretation (positive/negative/inconclusive). Patients were further stratified based on age at onset ≤40 years (very EOPD, n = 157). All variants were reclassified according to the latest American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics criteria. For classification purposes, PD-associated GBA1 variants were considered diagnostic. RESULTS: In 186 of 648 (29%) patients, the diagnostic report listed at least one variant, and the outcome was considered diagnostic (positive) in 105 (16%). After reanalysis, diagnosis changed in 18 of 186 (10%) patients, with 5 shifting from inconclusive to positive and 13 former positive being reclassified as inconclusive. A definite diagnosis was eventually reached in 97 (15%) patients, of whom the majority carried GBA1 variants or, less frequently, biallelic PRKN variants. In 89 (14%) cases, the genetic report was inconclusive. CONCLUSIONS: This study attempts to harmonize reporting of PD genetic testing across several diagnostic labs and highlights current difficulties in interpreting genetic variants emerging from NGS-multigene panels, with relevant implications for counseling. © 2023 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.

Clinical correlates of "pure" essential tremor: the TITAN study.

Background: To date, there are no large studies delineating the clinical correlates of "pure" essential tremor (ET) according to its new definition. Methods: From the ITAlian tremor Network (TITAN) database, we extracted data from patients with a diagnosis of "pure" ET and excluded those with other tremor classifications, including ET-plus, focal, and task-specific tremor, which were formerly considered parts of the ET spectrum. Results: Out of 653 subjects recruited in the TITAN study by January 2022, the data of 208 (31.8%) "pure" ET patients (86M/122F) were analyzed. The distribution of age at onset was found to be bimodal. The proportion of familial cases by the age-at-onset class of 20 years showed significant differences, with sporadic cases representing the large majority of the class with an age at onset above 60 years. Patients with a positive family history of tremor had a younger onset and were more likely to have leg involvement than sporadic patients despite a similar disease duration. Early-onset and late-onset cases were different in terms of tremor distribution at onset and tremor severity, likely as a function of longer disease duration, yet without differences in terms of quality of life, which suggests a relatively benign progression. Treatment patterns and outcomes revealed that up to 40% of the sample was unsatisfied with the current pharmacological options. Discussion: The findings reported in the study provide new insights, especially with regard to a possible inversed sex distribution, and to the genetic backgrounds of "pure" ET, given that familial cases were evenly distributed across age-at-onset classes of 20 years. Deep clinical profiling of "pure" ET, for instance, according to age at onset, might increase the clinical value of this syndrome in identifying pathogenetic hypotheses and therapeutic strategies.

Verbal Learning Impairment in Parkinson's Disease: Role of the Frontostriatal System in Working and Strategic Memory.

INTRODUCTION: Learning is a long-term memory process, influenced by working memory control processes, including recognition of semantic properties of items by which subjects generate a semantic structure of engrams. The aim of the study was to investigate the verbal learning strategies of individuals with Parkinson's disease (PD). METHODS: Thirty individuals with idiopathic PD and healthy control (HC) subjects were tested with a multi-trial word list learning, under two conditions: without cue and then with an explicit cue suggesting the categories in the list, respectively. RESULTS: In comparison to HC subjects, individuals with PD recalled fewer words and achieved a reduced number of categorical clusters; the strategical cue did not improve their performance. CONCLUSION: This suggests, besides a difficulty in identifying the correct learning strategy, a deficit in working memory, which undermines the strategy implementation.