Epidemiology and management of gestational diabetes.

Gestational diabetes is defined as hyperglycaemia first detected during pregnancy at glucose concentrations that are less than those of overt diabetes. Around 14% of pregnancies globally are affected by gestational diabetes; its prevalence varies with differences in risk factors and approaches to screening and diagnosis; and it is increasing in parallel with obesity and type 2 diabetes. Gestational diabetes direct costs are US$1·6 billion in the USA alone, largely due to complications including hypertensive disorders, preterm delivery, and neonatal metabolic and respiratory consequences. Between 30% and 70% of gestational diabetes is diagnosed in early pregnancy (ie, early gestational diabetes defined by hyperglycaemia before 20 weeks of gestation). Early gestational diabetes is associated with worse pregnancy outcomes compared with women diagnosed with late gestational diabetes (hyperglycaemia from 24 weeks to 28 weeks of gestation). Randomised controlled trials show benefits of treating gestational diabetes from 24 weeks to 28 weeks of gestation. The WHO 2013 recommendations for diagnosing gestational diabetes (one-step 75 gm 2-h oral glucose tolerance test at 24-28 weeks of gestation) are largely based on the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes Study, which confirmed the linear association between pregnancy complications and late-pregnancy maternal glycaemia: a phenomenon that has now also been shown in early pregnancy. Recently, the Treatment of Booking Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (TOBOGM) trial showed benefit in diagnosis and treatment of early gestational diabetes for women with risk factors. Given the diabesity epidemic, evidence for gestational diabetes heterogeneity by timing and subtype, and advances in technology, a life course precision medicine approach is urgently needed, using evidence-based prevention, diagnostic, and treatment strategies.

Call to action for a life course approach.

Gestational diabetes remains the most common medical disorder in pregnancy, with short-term and long-term consequences for mothers and offspring. New insights into pathophysiology and management suggest that the current gestational diabetes treatment approach should expand from a focus on late gestational diabetes to a personalised, integrated life course approach from preconception to postpartum and beyond. Early pregnancy lifestyle intervention could prevent late gestational diabetes. Early gestational diabetes diagnosis and treatment has been shown to be beneficial, especially when identified before 14 weeks of gestation. Early gestational diabetes screening now requires strategies for integration into routine antenatal care, alongside efforts to reduce variation in gestational diabetes care, across settings that differ between, and within, countries. Following gestational diabetes, an oral glucose tolerance test should be performed 6-12 weeks postpartum to assess the glycaemic state. Subsequent regular screening for both dysglycaemia and cardiometabolic disease is recommended, which can be incorporated alongside other family health activities. Diabetes prevention programmes for women with previous gestational diabetes might be enhanced using shared decision making and precision medicine. At all stages in this life course approach, across both high-resource and low-resource settings, a more systematic process for identifying and overcoming barriers to preventative care and treatment is needed to reduce the current global burden of gestational diabetes.

Intensive glycaemic targets in overweight and obese individuals with gestational diabetes mellitus: clinical trial protocol for the iGDM study.

INTRODUCTION: The prevalence of both obesity and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) has increased, and each is associated with adverse perinatal outcomes including fetal overgrowth, neonatal morbidity, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and caesarean delivery. Women with GDM who are also overweight or obese have higher rates of pregnancy complications when compared with normal-weight women with GDM, which may occur in part due to suboptimal glycaemic control. The current recommendations for glycaemic targets in pregnant women with diabetes are based on limited evidence and exceed the mean fasting (70.9±7.8 mg/dL) and 1-hour postprandial (108.9±12.9 mg/dL) glucose values in pregnant individuals without diabetes. Our prior work demonstrated that the use of intensive (fasting <90 mg/dL and 1-hour postprandial <120 mg/dL) compared with standard (fasting <95 mg/dL and 1-hour postprandial <140 mg/dL) glycaemic targets resulted in improved glycaemic control without increasing the risk for hypoglycaemia in pregnant individuals with GDM, but the impact of intensive glycaemic targets on perinatal outcomes is unknown. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: The Intensive Glycemic Targets in Overweight and Obese Women with Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: A Multicenter Randomized Trial (iGDM Trial) is a large, pragmatic randomised clinical trial designed to investigate the impact of intensive versus standard glycaemic targets on perinatal outcomes in women with GDM who are overweight and obese. During the 5-year project period, a multidisciplinary team of investigators from five medical centres representing regions of the USA with high rates of obesity will randomise 828 overweight and obese women with GDM to either intensive or standard glycaemic targets. We will test the central hypothesis that intensive glycaemic targets will result in lower rates of neonatal composite morbidity including large for gestational age birth weight, neonatal hypoglycaemia, respiratory distress syndrome and need for phototherapy when compared with standard glycaemic targets using the intention-to-treat approach to analysis. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The Institutional Review Board (IRB) at Indiana University School of Medicine approved this study (IRB# 11435; initial approval date 25 August 2021). We will submit the results of the trial for publication in peer-reviewed journals and presentations at international scientific meetings. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT05124808.

Study Design and Protocol of the Multisite Pregnancy 24/7 Cohort Study.

Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and other adverse pregnancy outcomes (APOs) are associated with an increased risk of future maternal cardiovascular disease. Physical activity during pregnancy reduces the risk of these APOs, yet few meet physical activity guidelines during pregnancy. Little is known about the role of sedentary behavior or sleep in APOs, a critical gap in knowledge given these behaviors comprise the majority of a 24-hour day. To address this knowledge gap, the Pregnancy 24/7 cohort study (2020-2025) uses 2 devices for 24-hour activity assessment in each trimester of pregnancy to examine associations of sedentary behavior, sleep, and the 24-hour activity cycle (composition of sedentary behavior, physical activity, and sleep) with hypertensive disorders and other APOs. Participants (n = 500) are recruited from the University of Iowa, University of Pittsburgh, and West Virginia University in early pregnancy and followed through delivery. The activPAL3 micro and Actiwatch Spectrum Plus are worn in each trimester for 7 days of 24-hour wear to assess the 24-hour activity cycle. APOs are abstracted from medical charts. This study will provide critical data to fuel future research examining how modifying the 24-hour activity cycle in pregnancy can improve maternal health.

Mid-pregnancy sleep disturbances are not associated with mid-pregnancy maternal glycemia.

Background: In pregnancy, epidemiological data have consistently shown strong associations between sleep quality and duration and maternal glycemia. However, other sleep disturbances such as difficulty falling asleep and staying asleep are common in pregnancy. They may contribute to impaired maternal glycemia through sympathetic nervous system activity, systemic inflammation, and hormonal pathways. However, there is little research examining associations between these specific sleep disturbances and maternal glycemia. Objective: This study aimed to investigate the associations of sleep disturbances during mid-pregnancy and mid-pregnancy maternal glycemia and gestational diabetes subtypes. Study Design: This is a secondary data analysis of the Comparison of Two Screening Strategies for Gestational Diabetes trial. Participants (n = 828) self-reported the frequency of sleep disturbances (i.e., trouble falling asleep, trouble staying asleep, waking several times per night, and waking feeling tired or worn out) in mid-pregnancy. Gestational diabetes was diagnosed using either the International Associations of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups or Carpenter-Coustan approach. We defined gestational diabetes subtypes based on the degree of insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction. We used multinomial logistic regression to examine associations of sleep disturbances with gestational diabetes status (i.e., normal, mild glycemic dysfunction, and gestational diabetes) and gestational diabetes subtypes (i.e., neither insulin resistance or beta-cell dysfunction, insulin resistance only, beta-cell dysfunction only, and insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction). Results: A total of 665 participants (80%) had normal glycemia, 81 (10%) mild hyperglycemia, and 80 (10%) had gestational diabetes. Among participants with gestational diabetes, 62 (78%) had both insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction, 15 (19 %) had insulin resistance only, and 3 had beta-cell dysfunction only or neither insulin resistance nor beta-cell dysfunction. Sleep disturbance frequency was not associated with maternal glycemia or gestational diabetes subtypes. Conclusions: Sleep disturbances in mid-pregnancy were not associated with maternal glycemia during mid-pregnancy. Future research should collect data on sleep disturbances at multiple time points in pregnancy and in combination with other sleep disturbances to determine whether sleep plays any role in maternal glycemic control.

A pathway level analysis of PFAS exposure and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been found to be associated with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) development, a maternal health disorder in pregnancy with negative effects that can extend beyond pregnancy. Studies that report on this association are difficult to summarize due to weak associations and wide confidence intervals. One way to advance this field is to sharpen the biologic theory on a causal pathway behind this association, and to measure it directly by way of molecular biomarkers. The aim of this review is to summarize the literature that supports a novel pathway between PFAS exposure and GDM development. Epidemiological studies demonstrate a clear association of biomarkers of thyroid hormones and glucose metabolism with GDM development. We report biologic plausibility and epidemiologic evidence that PFAS dysregulation of maternal thyroid hormones and thyrotropin (TSH) may disrupt glucose homeostasis, increasing the risk of GDM. Overall, epidemiological studies demonstrate that PFAS were positively associated with TSH and negatively with triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). PFAS were generally positively associated with glucose and insulin levels in pregnancy. We propose dysregulation of thyroid function and glucose metabolism may be a critical and missing component in the accurate estimation of PFAS on the risk of GDM.

Treatment of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Offspring Early Childhood Growth.

BACKGROUND: Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is associated with fetal overgrowth, and certain treatments are associated with an increased risk of macrosomia. However, there are limited data about the long-term effect of GDM treatment on childhood growth. METHODS: Cohort study of 816 women with GDM and their offspring delivered between 2009 and 2012. Childhood height and weight through age 3 were collected from the medical record and z-scores and body mass index (BMI) were calculated. We assessed the association between GDM treatment and childhood growth using linear mixed modeling. RESULTS: Treatment was divided into medical nutritional therapy (MNT) (n = 293), glyburide (n = 421), and insulin (n = 102). At delivery, birthweight, z-score, and BMI were higher in the offspring of women treated with either glyburide or insulin compared to MNT. However, weight, z-score, and BMI were similar among all offspring at 6 months and 1, 2, and 3 years of age. After controlling for covariates, there were differences in the weight z-score (P = 0.01) over the 3-year period by treatment group, but no differences in weight (P = 0.06) or change in BMI (P = 0.28). Pairwise comparisons indicated that insulin was associated with more weight gain compared with MNT (0.69 kg; 95% CI, 0.10-1.28; P = 0.02) and glyburide was associated with a trend toward lower weight z-score compared with MNT (-0.24; 95% CI, -0.47 to 0.003; P = 0.05). CONCLUSION: Despite growth differences detected at birth, we observed no meaningful differences in childhood growth from 6 months to 3 years among treatment groups, including in the offspring of women with GDM treated with glyburide.

Insulin Dosing, Glycemic Control, and Perinatal Outcomes in Pregnancies Complicated by Type-2 Diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of severe insulin resistance (insulin requirements ≥2 units/kg) at delivery and the relationship between severe insulin resistance, glycemic control, and adverse perinatal outcomes in pregnant women with type-2 diabetes mellitus. STUDY DESIGN: This is a retrospective cohort study of women with type-2 diabetes mellitus who delivered between January 2015 and December 2017 at a tertiary academic medical center. Maternal demographic information, self-monitored blood sugars, and insulin doses were abstracted from the medical record. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify maternal baseline characteristics associated with severe insulin resistance at delivery. RESULTS: Overall 72/160 (45%) of women had severe insulin resistance. Women in the severe insulin resistance group demonstrated evidence of suboptimal glycemic control as evidenced by higher mean hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) values (7.2 [ ± 1.1] vs. 6.6 [ ± 1.3%], p = 0.003), higher mean fasting (104.0 [ ± 17.4] vs. 95.2 [ ± 11.7 mg/dL], p < 0.001) and postprandial glucose values (132.4 [ ± 17.2] vs. 121.9 [ ± 16.9 mg/dL]), p < 0.001), and a higher percentage of total glucose values that were elevated above targets (37.7 [95% confidence interval (CI): 26.8-50] vs. 25.6 [95% CI: 13.3-41.3%], p < 0.001). Maternal HbA1c ≥6.5% and insulin use prior to pregnancy were associated with a higher prevalence of severe insulin resistance, while Hispanic ethnicity and non-White race were associated with a lower prevalence of severe insulin resistance. The rates of adverse perinatal outcomes including large for gestational age (LGA) birth weight, cesarean delivery, and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy did not differ between groups. CONCLUSION: Severe insulin resistance is common among pregnant women with type-2 diabetes, and it is associated with suboptimal glycemic control. Future studies are necessary to develop strategies to identify women with severe insulin resistance early in pregnancy and facilitate adequate insulin dosing. KEY POINTS: · Severe insulin resistance is common.. · BMI does not predict severe insulin resistance.. · Suboptimal glycemic control is common..

Perinatal Outcomes Associated with Early Diabetes Testing in Pregnancies Complicated by Obesity.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine whether early diabetes testing is associated with differences in perinatal outcomes among pregnant women with obesity (body mass index ≥30 kg/m2). STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a retrospective cohort study of singleton pregnancies from 2012 to 2014 at a large academic medical center which examined the association of diabetes testing (HBA1c, 50 g glucose challenge test, or 100 g oral glucose tolerance test) before 24 weeks with perinatal outcomes using propensity score modeling and logistic regression. RESULTS: Among women with obesity, 790 out of 2,698 (29.3%) underwent early diabetes testing. Propensity score modeling demonstrated that early testing was associated with higher rates of diabetes diagnosis (odds ratio [OR]: 1.62, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.10-2.37, p = 0.01) and a trend toward small for gestational age birth weight (OR: 1.38, 95% CI: 1.00-1.90, p = 0.05) and neonatal composite morbidity (OR: 1.25, 95% CI: 1.00-1.57, p = 0.05) compared with routine testing. Women with inadequate weight gain were more likely a small for gestational age (SGA) infant if they underwent early testing compared with those with routine testing alone (19.8 vs. 11.6%, p = 0.01). CONCLUSION: Early testing targets higher risk women and yields a higher diabetes diagnosis rate, but inadequate weight gain in these women may increase risk SGA birth weight and neonatal morbidity. Randomized clinical trials are urgently needed to assess whether early diabetes testing improves outcomes in women with obesity.

Timing of Gestational Weight Gain and Adverse Perinatal Outcomes in Overweight and Obese Women.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether inadequate or excessive gestational weight gain before the third trimester is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes, and to evaluate the association of weight gain in the third trimester with fetal growth. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study of all eligible overweight and obese women with singleton pregnancies delivered at an academic institution between 2012 and 2014. Our primary exposure was inadequate or excess gestational weight gain during the first and second trimesters. Outcomes included small- (SGA) or large- (LGA) for-gestational-age birth weight as well adverse maternal outcomes and composite neonatal morbidity. Multivariable logistic regression was used to assess the relationship between weight gain and perinatal outcomes, and stratified analyses evaluated the relationship between third trimester weight gain and birth weight category. RESULTS: Of the 5,814 women, 1,280 (22%) had adequate, 1,428 (24.6%) had inadequate, and 3,106 (53.4%) had excessive weight gain in the first and second trimesters. Women with inadequate early gestational weight gain were more likely to deliver an SGA neonate (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.59, 95% CI 1.23-2.06) and less likely to deliver an LGA neonate (aOR 0.73, 95% CI 0.54-0.98), whereas those with excessive early gestational weight gain were less likely to deliver an SGA neonate (aOR 0.66, 95% CI 0.52-0.85) and more likely to deliver an LGA neonate (aOR 1.66, 95% CI 1.32-2.1). Higher weight gain in the third trimester was associated with increased risk for LGA birth weight, but third trimester weight gain was not related to SGA birth weight. CONCLUSION: Early gestational weight gain is associated with birth weight category. Modifying weight gain in the third trimester may limit the risk for LGA birth weight, but higher weight gain in late gestation does not alter the association between inadequate early weight gain and the risk for SGA.

Drugs to Control Diabetes During Pregnancy.

Diabetes is a common complication of pregnancy associated with both short- and long-term adverse maternal and offspring effects. All types of diabetes in pregnancy are increasing in prevalence. Treatment of diabetes in pregnancy, targeting glycemic control, improves both maternal and offspring outcomes, albeit imperfectly for many women. Pharmacologic treatment recommendations differ between pregestational and gestational diabetes. Improved treatment of diabetes in pregnancy will need to consider maternal disease heterogeneity and comorbidities as well as long-term offspring outcomes. In this review, the authors summarize recent clinical studies to highlight established pharmacologic treatments for diabetes in pregnancy and provide suggestions for further research.

Intensive glycemic control in gestational diabetes mellitus: a randomized controlled clinical feasibility trial.

BACKGROUND: Overweight and obese women with gestational diabetes mellitus are at increased risk for adverse perinatal outcomes, and they are also more likely to have suboptimal glycemic control. However, there is a paucity of data evaluating whether lower glycemic targets could improve outcomes. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the feasibility of intensive glycemic control in overweight and obese women with gestational diabetes mellitus. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We randomized 60 overweight or obese women with gestational diabetes mellitus, diagnosed between 12 and 32 weeks' gestation to either intensive (fasting <90 mg/dL, 1 hour postprandial <120 mg/dL) or standard (fasting <95 mg/dL, 1 ho postprandial <140 mg/dL) glycemic targets. Maternal glucose was assessed in 2 ways: blinded continuous glucose monitors, worn for 5 days at 2 time points (at 12-32 weeks and again at 32-36 weeks), and self-monitored glucose measurement 4 times per day. All women underwent standardized dietary counseling, and medical therapy was prescribed as needed to achieve glycemic control. RESULTS: Between December 2015 and December 2017, we randomized 60 women to either intensive (n = 30) or standard (n = 30) glycemic control. Baseline characteristics including maternal age, body mass index, and gestational age at diagnosis were similar between the intensive and standard groups. Medical therapy was more common in women in the intensive group than those in the standard group (83 vs 57%, P = .02). Women in the intensive glycemic control group had lower glucose values as assessed by continuous glucose monitors at including 24-hour mean (-8.1; 95% confidence interval, -12.0 to -4.3 mg/dL; P < .0001) and 1-h postprandial (-11.8; 95% confidence interval, -19.7 to -3.9 mg/dL, P = .004) values. Hypoglycemia <60 mg/dL was uncommon and did not differ between groups. CONCLUSION: Intensive glycemic targets can be used in overweight and obese women with minimal hypoglycemia, and this approach results in improved glycemic control when compared to standard glycemic targets. Further studies are needed to determine whether intensive glycemic targets can improve maternal and neonatal outcomes in high-risk women with gestational diabetes mellitus. CLINICAL TRIAL IDENTIFIER: NCT02530866; clinicaltrials.gov.

Response to Medical Nutritional Therapy and Need for Pharmacological Therapy in Women with Gestational Diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: We assessed if the initial response to medical nutritional therapy (MNT) can help predict the need for pharmacological therapy in women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). STUDY DESIGN: We identified 1,174 women with GDM who underwent standardized dietary counseling and reported glucose values from the first week of MNT. We compared women who required pharmacological therapy with those who did not use bivariate statistics, and used multivariable logistic regression modeling to assess for factors predicting the need for pharmacological therapy. RESULTS: We identified 819 women (69.8%) who needed pharmacological therapy. They had higher prepregnancy body mass index, higher rates of GDM diagnosis before 24 weeks, and higher oral glucose tolerance test values. After adjustment for covariates, age (odds ratio [OR]: 1.04; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01-1.08), obesity (OR: 2.49; 95% CI: 1.70-3.66), and ≥33% of abnormal glucose values from the first week of MNT (OR: 13.84; 95% CI: 9.4-20.20) were associated with the need for pharmacological therapy. Area under the curve of the regression model was 0.83, with a sensitivity of 72.2%, a specificity of 86.8%, and a positive predictive value of 92.5%. CONCLUSION: Glucose values from the first week of MNT were the strongest predictor of needing pharmacological therapy. Further studies are needed to define metabolic predictors of response to MNT in women with GDM.

Antibiotic Use in Pregnancy, Abnormal Fetal Growth, and Development of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus.

OBJECTIVE: Antibiotics are commonly used in pregnancy. Prior studies have indicated that antibiotic use in pregnancy may affect birth weight, whereas data in nonpregnant individuals suggest that antibiotic exposure may increase diabetes risk. We evaluated the impact of antibiotic prescriptions during pregnancy on the prevalence of small for gestational age (SGA) and large for gestational age (LGA) birth weight and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). STUDY DESIGN: This retrospective cohort study of 12,551 women who delivered at a large academic medical center between 2012 and 2014 assessed the number and type of antibiotic prescriptions prior to GDM testing using the electronic medical record. SGA and LGA birth weight and GDM rates were compared among women who were or were not prescribed antibiotics. RESULTS: Overall, 3,991 (31.8%) of 12,551 patients received at least one antibiotic prescription. After covariate adjustment, no differences existed in risk of SGA (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 1; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.88-1.15; p = 0.94), LGA (aOR: 1; 95% CI: 0.86-1.17; p = 0.97), or GDM (aOR: 0.90; 95% CI: 0.72-1.13; p = 0.36) between women who were or were not prescribed antibiotics. CONCLUSION: Antibiotic use does not affect the risk of SGA or LGA birth weight or GDM in pregnant women. These results provide reassurance regarding the use of antibiotics when clinically indicated in pregnancy.

Novel therapies for diabetes mellitus in pregnancy.

Diabetes is a common complication of pregnancy, and the prevalence of all types of the disease is increasing worldwide. Diabetes in pregnancy is associated with short term and long term adverse effects for mother and child. The goal of treatment of diabetes in pregnancy is to minimize maternal and fetal adverse events related to hyperglycemia. Treatment options vary by type of diabetes, from a focus on lifestyle modifications in gestational diabetes to continuous glucose monitoring and insulin pumps in pregestational diabetes. Nevertheless, given the commonality of hyperglycemia, considerable overlap exists in the treatment of different types of diabetes in pregnancy. Also, despite ongoing research on treatment of diabetes in pregnancy for decades, changes in the characteristics of the patient population have highlighted the limited effectiveness of different therapies. Specifically, despite the co-occurrence of obesity and diabetes, treatment recommendations including glycemic targets are not altered in such cases and a single optimal treatment strategy for each type of diabetes in pregnancy does not seem to exist. Rather, the approach to treating pregnant women with diabetes likely needs to be individualized to maximize the short term and long term health of mother and child. This article will review recent clinical studies to summarize established treatment strategies and introduce novel therapies for diabetes in pregnancy.

Pregnancy outcomes in women with an early diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus.

AIM: To examine pregnancy outcomes in women with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) based on the timing of diagnosis. METHOD: We compared demographics, blood sugars and outcomes between women diagnosed before (n = 167) or after 24 weeks' gestation (n = 1202) in a single hospital between 2009 and 2012. Because early screening is risk-based we used propensity score modelling and conditional logistic regression to account for systematic differences. RESULTS: Women diagnosed with GDM before 24 weeks were more likely to be obese and they were less likely to have excess gestational weight gain (35 vs. 45%, p = 0.04). Early diagnosis was associated with more frequent therapy including glyburide (65 vs. 56%, p < 0.001) and insulin (19 vs 6%, p < 0.001). After propensity score modelling and accounting for covariates, early diagnosis was associated with an increased risk for macrosomia (OR 2, 95% 1-4.15, p = 0.0498). Early diagnosis was not associated with other adverse outcomes. In a subgroup analysis comparing women treated with glyburide prior to 24 weeks compared to those diagnosed after 24 weeks, early diagnosis in women treated with glyburide was associated with an increased risk for macrosomia (OR 2.3, 95% CI 1.1-5.4, P = 0.04). CONCLUSION: Women diagnosed with GDM before 24 weeks have unique features, are at risk for adverse outcomes, and require targeted approaches to therapy.

Early Pregnancy Diabetes Screening and Diagnosis: Prevalence, Rates of Abnormal Test Results, and Associated Factors.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the prevalence of early diabetes screening in pregnancy, rates of abnormal diabetes test results before 24 weeks of gestation, and factors associated with early diabetes screening. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study of all singleton deliveries from 2012 to 2014 among diverse clinical practices at a large academic medical center. We assessed rates of early (less than 24 weeks of gestation) and routine (at or beyond 24 weeks of gestation) diabetes screening, with abnormal test results defined using the Carpenter-Coustan criteria, a 50-g glucose challenge test result greater than 200 mg/dL, or a hemoglobin A1C level greater than 6.5%. Univariate and multivariate analyses were used to evaluate clinical and demographic determinants of screening and diagnosis. RESULTS: Overall, 1,420 of 11,331 (12.5%) women underwent early screening. Increasing body mass index (BMI) category, race, public insurance, history of gestational diabetes mellitus, a family history of diabetes, and chronic hypertension were associated with early screening. Early screening rates rose with increasing BMI category, but only 268 of 551 (48.6%) of women with class III obesity underwent early screening. Among those screened early, 2.0% of normal-weight women, 4.0% of overweight women, 4.2% of class I obese women, 3.8% of class II obese women, and 9.0% of class III obese women had abnormal early test results (P<.001). CONCLUSION: Early diabetes screening is used inconsistently, and many women with risk factors do not undergo early screening. A significant proportion of women with class III obesity will test positive for gestational diabetes mellitus before 24 weeks of gestation, and studies are urgently needed to assess the effect of early diabetes screening and diagnosis on perinatal outcomes in high-risk women.

Glycemic Control and Pregnancy Outcomes in Women with Type 2 Diabetes Treated with Oral Hypoglycemic Agents.

Objective There is limited data regarding the use of oral hypoglycemic agents (OHAs) in pregnant women with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Study Design This was a retrospective cohort study of women with T2DM who were treated with OHA or insulin from the first trimester onward. Bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to compare pregnancy outcomes in women treated with OHA to those treated with insulin. Results One-third (67/198) of women were treated with OHA. Women treated with OHA had a shorter disease duration (4.4 vs. 6.8 years; p = 0.001), were more likely to have a normal prepregnancy body mass index, and had less gestational weight gain (GWG; 22.4 vs. 30.4 lbs; p = 0.005). A lower GWG was noted in obese women treated with OHA (19.9 ± 18.6 vs. 28.3 ± 17.7 pounds; p = 0.008). First-trimester hemoglobin A1c values were lower with OHAs, but second- and third-trimester values were similar. Among women who started pregnancy using OHA, 37/67 (55.2%) remained on OHA at delivery. Pregnancy outcomes did not differ between women who received OHA and those treated with insulin. Conclusion OHA treatment is more likely in women with T2DM who begin pregnancy with less severe disease, and use of OHA may be associated with decreased GWG.

Placental maternal vascular malperfusion and adverse pregnancy outcomes in gestational diabetes mellitus.

INTRODUCTION: Maternal vascular malperfusion (MVM) lesions represent hypoxic-ischemic damage to the placenta, and they are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Women with gestational diabetes (GDM) are at increased risk for pregnancy complications, so we set out to characterize the prevalence and clinical correlates of MVM lesions in this cohort. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study of 1187/1374 (86.4%) women with GDM delivered between 2009 and 2012 who had placental pathology available. Placental lesions of all types were tabulated and grouped into constructs of related entities. MVM lesions specifically included villous infarcts, decidual vasculopathy, increased syncytial knots, perivillous fibrin, and fibrin deposition. We compared maternal characteristics between women with and without MVM lesions, and we also assessed the impact of these lesions on birth weight, preterm birth, and pre-eclampsia using multivariable logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: MVM lesions were the most common placental lesion type in women with GDM (n = 362, 30.5%). Excess gestational weight gain was independently associated with MVM lesions (aOR 1.42, 95% CI 1.06-1.91, p = 0.02) after adjusting for maternal characteristics. MVM lesions were associated with lower birth weight (-90.3 g, 95% CI -148.0 to -32.7, p = 0.002), as well as a 2-fold increased risk for delivery of a small for gestational age infant (10.8 vs 5.9%, p = 0.01) in overweight and obese women. MVM lesions were also associated with increased risk for preterm birth <34 weeks (adjusted OR 2.36, 95% CI 1.31-4.23, p = 0.004) and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP; adjusted OR 1.58, 95% CI 1.13-2.22, p = 0.02). DISCUSSION: Placental maternal vascular malperfusion lesions may be one pathway linking excess gestational weight gain to adverse pregnancy outcomes in women with GDM, and future studies are needed to identify metabolic factors that may explain this association.

What we have learned about the role of 17-alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate in the prevention of preterm birth.

Despite major advances in neonatal care, the burden of preterm birth remains high. This is not unexpected since strategies to identify and treat risk factors in early pregnancy have not been very effective in reducing the preterm birth rate. Initial studies suggested a potential benefit for 17-alpha-hydroxyprogesterone caproate (17-OHPC) in decreasing the risk of recurrent preterm birth women with a singleton gestation. However, the use of 17-OHPC has not conferred benefit for other categories of women at high risk for preterm delivery (twins, triplets, and short cervical length). The increasing body of evidence suggests that preterm birth is a complex condition with variable mechanisms of disease and significant individual heterogeneity. This review will examine the plausibility of 17-OHPC in preventing preterm birth and the investigation of its clinical efficacy. We will also highlight factors to explain variations in clinical trial outcomes and outline the trajectory needed for future investigations.