Arousal, Gray's theory of anxiety, and the etiology of psychopathy.

This paper focuses on Jeffrey Gray's theory of anxiety from the perspective of Fowles' (1980) application of his work to theories of arousal, psychophysiology, and the etiology of psychopathy. Although highly influential, the concept of general arousal failed to find support in terms of between-individuals assessment with multiple physiological measures. Gray's constructs of a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) that mediates anxiety, a behavioral approach or activation system (BAS) that energizes behavior to approach rewards, and a nonspecific arousal system that energizes behavior captured aspects of arousal. Fowles (1980) proposed that the BIS elicits electrodermal activity in response to threats, the BAS increases heart rate in response to reward incentive cues, and psychopathy is associated with a weak BIS. The paper reviews Gray's impact on future research on these topics, including early proposals relevant to the National Institute of Mental Health's Research Domain Criteria. Finally, the paper summarizes the evolution of theories of the etiology of psychopathy since 1980, noting ways in which aspects of Gray's theory are still seen in psychopathy research. Patrick's triarchic model has emerged as a major theory of psychopathy. Beauchaine's trait impulsivity theory of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder also is relevant.

Publication recommendations for electrodermal measurements.

This committee was appointed by the SPR Board to provide recommendations for publishing data on electrodermal activity (EDA). They are intended to be a stand-alone source for newcomers and experienced users. A short outline of principles for electrodermal measurement is given, and recommendations from an earlier report (Fowles et al., ) are incorporated. Three fundamental techniques of EDA recording are described: (1) endosomatic recording without the application of an external current, (2) exosomatic recording with direct current (the most widely applied methodology), and (3) exosomatic recording with alternating current-to date infrequently used but a promising future methodology. In addition to EDA recording in laboratories, ambulatory recording has become an emerging technique. Specific problems that come with this recording of EDA in the field are discussed, as are those emerging from recording EDA within a magnetic field (e.g., fMRI). Recommendations for the details that should be mentioned in publications of EDA methods and results are provided.

Triarchic conceptualization of psychopathy: developmental origins of disinhibition, boldness, and meanness.

The clinical concept of psychopathy ("psychopathic personality") is generally considered to entail persistent behavioral deviancy in the company of emotional-interpersonal detachment. However, longstanding debates continue regarding the appropriate scope and boundaries of the concept. Here, we review alternative historic descriptions of the disorder together with empirical findings for the best-established assessment instruments in use with adolescents and youth as a basis for formulating an integrative, triarchic model of psychopathy. The essence of the triarchic model is that psychopathy encompasses three distinct phenotypic constructs: disinhibition, which reflects a general propensity toward problems of impulse control; boldness, which is defined as the nexus of social dominance, emotional resiliency, and venturesomeness; and meanness, which is defined as aggressive resource seeking without regard for others ("dysaffliated agency"). These differing phenotypic components are considered in terms of relevant etiologic and developmental pathways. The triarchic conceptualization provides a basis for reconciling and accommodating alternative descriptive accounts of psychopathy, and a framework for coordinating research on neurobiological and developmental processes contributing to varying manifestations of the disorder.

The skin conductance orienting response to semantic stimuli: significance can be independent of arousal.

The characteristics of stimuli that elicit skin conductance responses (SCRs) have been conceptualized in varied ways, with strong emphasis on the significance or arousing quality of stimuli. Our goal was to determine whether "significance" can be shown to have an effect on SCRs independent of "arousal," using words as stimuli. Ratings of words indicated that significance is partially independent of arousal. In Study 1, SCRs from 43 participants during presentation of 20 significant, nonarousing words with a negative valence that were either depression related or potentially self-referent and 20 nonsignificant words matched on valence and arousal showed a main effect of significance. In Study 2 (N=44), significant, nonarousing words were sampled more broadly to examine the effects of self-reference and valence. Significance, rather than just negativity or self-reference, elicited SCRs independently of arousal. SCRs to significant words may reflect cognitive and attentional processes that, in turn, might prove useful for the assessment of the cognitive aspects of anxiety.

Schedule-induced electrodermal responding in children.

The current studies were designed to determine whether different intermittent schedules of reinforcement would have a differential effect on the skin conductance responses (SCRs) of children in the 8-12-year-old age range. Results of two experiments indicated that the amplitude of children's SCRs immediately following the occurrence of reinforcement were a function of the schedule of reinforcement, with larger SCRs associated with longer inter-reinforcement intervals. The findings are consistent with the research literature suggesting that long inter-reinforcement intervals can be evocative of aversively motivated emotions, as well as with research on the effects of interstimulus intervals on SCRs. Possible implications for these findings are discussed.