Tracheostomy in children is associated with neutrophilic airway inflammation.

BACKGROUND: Tracheostomies in children are associated with significant morbidity, poor quality of life, excess healthcare costs and excess mortality. The underlying mechanisms facilitating adverse respiratory outcomes in tracheostomised children are poorly understood. We aimed to characterise airway host defence in tracheostomised children using serial molecular analyses. METHODS: Tracheal aspirates, tracheal cytology brushings and nasal swabs were prospectively collected from children with a tracheostomy and controls. Transcriptomic, proteomic and metabolomic methods were applied to characterise the impact of tracheostomy on host immune response and the airway microbiome. RESULTS: Children followed up serially from the time of tracheostomy up to 3 months postprocedure (n=9) were studied. A further cohort of children with a long-term tracheostomy were also enrolled (n=24). Controls (n=13) comprised children without a tracheostomy undergoing bronchoscopy. Long-term tracheostomy was associated with airway neutrophilic inflammation, superoxide production and evidence of proteolysis when compared with controls. Reduced airway microbial diversity was established pre-tracheostomy and sustained thereafter. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term childhood tracheostomy is associated with a inflammatory tracheal phenotype characterised by neutrophilic inflammation and the ongoing presence of potential respiratory pathogens. These findings suggest neutrophil recruitment and activation as potential exploratory targets in seeking to prevent recurrent airway complications in this vulnerable group of patients.

Differentiation of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells from Patients with Severe COPD into Functional Airway Epithelium.

Background: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), a major cause of mortality and disability, is a complex disease with heterogeneous and ill-understood biological mechanisms. Human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) are a promising tool to model human disease, including the impact of genetic susceptibility. Methods: We developed a simple and reliable method for reprogramming peripheral blood mononuclear cells into hiPSCs and to differentiate them into air−liquid interface bronchial epithelium within 45 days. Importantly, this method does not involve any cell sorting step. We reprogrammed blood cells from one healthy control and three patients with very severe COPD. Results: The mean cell purity at the definitive endoderm and ventral anterior foregut endoderm (vAFE) stages was >80%, assessed by quantifying C-X-C Motif Chemokine Receptor 4/SRY-Box Transcription Factor 17 (CXCR4/SOX17) and NK2 Homeobox 1 (NKX2.1) expression, respectively. vAFE cells from all four hiPSC lines differentiated into bronchial epithelium in air−liquid interface conditions, with large zones covered by beating ciliated, basal, goblets, club cells and neuroendocrine cells, as found in vivo. The hiPSC-derived airway epithelium (iALI) from patients with very severe COPD and from the healthy control were undistinguishable. Conclusions: iALI bronchial epithelium is ready for better understanding lung disease pathogenesis and accelerating drug discovery.

Targeting uPA-uPAR interaction to improve intestinal epithelial barrier integrity in inflammatory bowel disease.

BACKGROUND: Loss of intestinal epithelial barrier integrity is a critical component of Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) pathogenesis. Co-expression regulation of ligand-receptor pairs in IBD mucosa has not been systematically studied. Targeting ligand-receptor pairs which are induced in IBD mucosa and function in intestinal epithelial barrier integrity may provide novel therapeutics for IBD. METHODS: We performed transcriptomic meta-analysis on public IBD datasets combined with cell surface protein-protein-interaction (PPI) databases. We explored primary human/mouse intestinal organoids and Caco-2 cells for expression and function studies of uPA-uPAR (prime hits from the meta-analysis). Epithelial barrier integrity was measured by Trans-Epithelial Electrical Resistance (TEER), FITC-Dextran permeability and tight junction assessment. Genetic (CRISPR, siRNA and KO mice) and pharmacological (small molecules, neutralizing antibody and peptide inhibitors) approaches were applied. Mice deficient of uPAR were studied using the Dextran Sulfate Sodium (DSS)-induced colitis model. FINDINGS: The IBD ligand-receptor meta-analysis led to the discovery of a coordinated upregulation of uPA and uPAR in IBD mucosa. Both genes were significantly upregulated during epithelial barrier breakdown in primary intestinal organoids and decreased during barrier formation. Genetic inhibition of uPAR or uPA, or pharmacologically blocking uPA-uPAR interaction protects against cytokine-induced barrier breakdown. Deficiency of uPAR in epithelial cells leads to enhanced EGF/EGFR signalling, a known regulator of epithelial homeostasis and repair. Mice deficient of uPAR display improved intestinal barrier function in vitro and during DSS-induced colitis in vivo. INTERPRETATION: Our findings suggest that blocking uPA-uPAR interaction via pharmacological agents protects the epithelial barrier from inflammation-induced damage, indicating a potential therapeutic target for IBD. FUNDING: The study was funded by Boehringer Ingelheim.

Delayed induction of type I and III interferons mediates nasal epithelial cell permissiveness to SARS-CoV-2.

The nasal epithelium is a plausible entry point for SARS-CoV-2, a site of pathogenesis and transmission, and may initiate the host response to SARS-CoV-2. Antiviral interferon (IFN) responses are critical to outcome of SARS-CoV-2. Yet little is known about the interaction between SARS-CoV-2 and innate immunity in this tissue. Here we apply single-cell RNA sequencing and proteomics to a primary cell model of human nasal epithelium differentiated at air-liquid interface. SARS-CoV-2 demonstrates widespread tropism for nasal epithelial cell types. The host response is dominated by type I and III IFNs and interferon-stimulated gene products. This response is notably delayed in onset relative to viral gene expression and compared to other respiratory viruses. Nevertheless, once established, the paracrine IFN response begins to impact on SARS-CoV-2 replication. When provided prior to infection, recombinant IFNß or IFNλ1 induces an efficient antiviral state that potently restricts SARS-CoV-2 viral replication, preserving epithelial barrier integrity. These data imply that the IFN-I/III response to SARS-CoV-2 initiates in the nasal airway and suggest nasal delivery of recombinant IFNs to be a potential chemoprophylactic strategy.

Functional human iPSC-derived alveolar-like cells cultured in a miniaturized 96­Transwell air-liquid interface model.

In order to circumvent the limited access and donor variability of human primary alveolar cells, directed differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) into alveolar-like cells, provides a promising tool for respiratory disease modeling and drug discovery assays. In this work, a unique, miniaturized 96-Transwell microplate system is described where hiPSC-derived alveolar-like cells were cultured at an air-liquid interface (ALI). To this end, hiPSCs were differentiated into lung epithelial progenitor cells (LPCs) and subsequently matured into a functional alveolar type 2 (AT2)-like epithelium with monolayer-like morphology. AT2-like cells cultured at the physiological ALI conditions displayed characteristics of AT2 cells with classical alveolar surfactant protein expressions and lamellar-body like structures. The integrity of the epithelial barriers between the AT2-like cells was confirmed by applying a custom-made device for 96-parallelized transepithelial electric resistance (TEER) measurements. In order to generate an IPF disease-like phenotype in vitro, the functional AT2-like cells were stimulated with cytokines and growth factors present in the alveolar tissue of IPF patients. The cytokines stimulated the secretion of pro-fibrotic biomarker proteins both on the mRNA (messenger ribonucleic acid) and protein level. Thus, the hiPSC-derived and cellular model system enables the recapitulation of certain IPF hallmarks, while paving the route towards a miniaturized medium throughput approach of pharmaceutical drug discovery.

An EZH2-dependent transcriptional complex promotes aberrant epithelial remodelling after injury.

Unveiling the molecular mechanisms of tissue remodelling following injury is imperative to elucidate its regenerative capacity and aberrant repair in disease. Using different omics approaches, we identified enhancer of zester homolog 2 (EZH2) as a key regulator of fibrosis in injured lung epithelium. Epithelial injury drives an enrichment of nuclear transforming growth factor-ß-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) that mediates EZH2 phosphorylation to facilitate its liberation from polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2). This process results in the establishment of a transcriptional complex of EZH2, RNA-polymerase II (POL2) and nuclear actin, which orchestrates aberrant epithelial repair programmes. The liberation of EZH2 from PRC2 is accompanied by an EZH2-EZH1 switch to preserve H3K27me3 deposition at non-target genes. Loss of epithelial TAK1, EZH2 or blocking nuclear actin influx attenuates the fibrotic cascade and restores respiratory homeostasis. Accordingly, EZH2 inhibition significantly improves outcomes in a pulmonary fibrosis mouse model. Our results reveal an important non-canonical function of EZH2, paving the way for new therapeutic interventions in fibrotic lung diseases.

Real-time measurement of cellular bioenergetics in fully differentiated human nasal epithelial cells grown at air-liquid-interface.

Shifts in cellular metabolic phenotypes have the potential to cause disease-driving processes in respiratory disease. The respiratory epithelium is particularly susceptible to metabolic shifts in disease, but our understanding of these processes is limited by the incompatibility of the technology required to measure metabolism in real-time with the cell culture platforms used to generate differentiated respiratory epithelial cell types. Thus, to date, our understanding of respiratory epithelial metabolism has been restricted to that of basal epithelial cells in submerged culture, or via indirect end point metabolomics readouts in lung tissue. Here we present a novel methodology using the widely available Seahorse Analyzer platform to monitor real-time changes in the cellular metabolism of fully differentiated primary human airway epithelial cells grown at air-liquid interface (ALI). We show increased glycolytic, but not mitochondrial, ATP production rates in response to physiologically relevant increases in glucose availability. We also show that pharmacological inhibition of lactate dehydrogenase is able to reduce glucose-induced shifts toward aerobic glycolysis. This method is timely given the recent advances in our understanding of new respiratory epithelial subtypes that can only be observed in vitro through culture at ALI and will open new avenues to measure real-time metabolic changes in healthy and diseased respiratory epithelium, and in turn the potential for the development of novel therapeutics targeting metabolic-driven disease phenotypes.

Recapitulating idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis related alveolar epithelial dysfunction in a human iPSC-derived air-liquid interface model.

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a fatal disease of unknown cause that is characterized by progressive fibrotic lung remodeling. An abnormal emergence of airway epithelial-like cells within the alveolar compartments of the lung, herein termed bronchiolization, is often observed in IPF. However, the origin of this dysfunctional distal lung epithelium remains unknown due to a lack of suitable human model systems. In this study, we established a human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived air-liquid interface (ALI) model of alveolar epithelial type II (ATII)-like cell differentiation that allows us to investigate alveolar epithelial progenitor cell differentiation in vitro. We treated this system with an IPF-relevant cocktail (IPF-RC) to mimic the pro-fibrotic cytokine milieu present in IPF lungs. Stimulation with IPF-RC during differentiation increases secretion of IPF biomarkers and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) of these cultures reveals significant overlap with human IPF patient data. IPF-RC treatment further impairs ATII differentiation by driving a shift toward an airway epithelial-like expression signature, providing evidence that a pro-fibrotic cytokine environment can influence the proximo-distal differentiation pattern of human lung epithelial cells. In conclusion, we show for the first time, the establishment of a human model system that recapitulates aspects of IPF-associated bronchiolization of the lung epithelium in vitro.

Effective glucose metabolism maintains low intracellular glucose in airway epithelial cells after exposure to hyperglycemia.

The airway epithelium maintains differential glucose concentrations between the airway surface liquid (ASL, ~0.4 mM) and the blood/interstitium (5-6 mM), which is important for defense against infection. Glucose primarily moves from the blood to the ASL via paracellular movement, down its concentration gradient, across the tight junctions. However, there is evidence that glucose can move transcellularly across epithelial cells. Using a Förster resonance energy transfer sensor for glucose, we investigated intracellular glucose concentrations in airway epithelial cells and the role of hexokinases in regulating intracellular glucose concentrations in normoglycemic and hyperglycemic conditions. Our findings indicated that in airway epithelial cells (H441 or primary human bronchial epithelial cells) exposed to 5 mM glucose (normoglycemia), intracellular glucose concentration is in the micromolar range. Inhibition of facilitative glucose transporters (GLUTs) with cytochalasin B reduced intracellular glucose concentration. When cells were exposed to 15 mM glucose (hyperglycemia), intracellular glucose concentration was reduced. Airway cells expressed hexokinases I, II, and III. Inhibition with 3-bromopyruvate decreased hexokinase activity by 25% and elevated intracellular glucose concentration, but levels remained in the micromolar range. Exposure to hyperglycemia increased glycolysis, glycogen, and sorbitol. Thus, glucose enters the airway cell via GLUTs and is then rapidly processed by hexokinase-dependent and hexokinase-independent metabolic pathways to maintain low intracellular glucose concentrations. We propose that this prevents transcellular transport and aids the removal of glucose from the ASL and that the main route of entry for glucose into the ASL is via the paracellular pathway.

Real-Time, Semi-Automated Fluorescent Measurement of the Airway Surface Liquid pH of Primary Human Airway Epithelial Cells.

In recent years, the importance of mucosal surface pH in the airways has been highlighted by its ability to regulate airway surface liquid (ASL) hydration, mucus viscosity and activity of antimicrobial peptides, key parameters involved in innate defense of the lungs. This is of primary relevance in the field of chronic respiratory diseases such as cystic fibrosis (CF) where these parameters are dysregulated. While different groups have studied ASL pH both in vivo and in vitro, their methods report a relatively wide range of ASL pH values and even contradictory findings regarding any pH differences between non-CF and CF cells. Furthermore, their protocols do not always provide enough details in order to ensure reproducibility, most are low throughput and require expensive equipment or specialized knowledge to implement, making them difficult to establish in most labs. Here we describe a semi-automated fluorescent plate reader assay that enables the real-time measurement of ASL pH under thin film conditions that more closely resemble the in vivo situation. This technique allows for stable measurements for many hours from multiple airway cultures simultaneously and, importantly, dynamic changes in ASL pH in response to agonists and inhibitors can be monitored. To achieve this, the ASL of fully differentiated primary human airway epithelial cells (hAECs) are stained overnight with a pH-sensitive dye in order to allow for the reabsorption of the excess fluid to ensure thin film conditions. After fluorescence is monitored in the presence or absence of agonists, pH calibration is performed in situ to correct for volume and dye concentration. The method described provides the required controls to make stable and reproducible ASL pH measurements, which ultimately could be used as a drug discovery platform for personalized medicine, as well as adapted to other epithelial tissues and experimental conditions, such as inflammatory and/or host-pathogen models.

Human lung fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transformation is not driven by an LDH5-dependent metabolic shift towards aerobic glycolysis.

BACKGROUND: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a fatal respiratory disease characterized by aberrant fibroblast activation and progressive fibrotic remodelling of the lungs. Though the exact pathophysiological mechanisms of IPF remain unknown, TGF-ß1 is thought to act as a main driver of the disease by mediating fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transformation (FMT). Recent reports have indicated that a metabolic shift towards aerobic glycolysis takes place during FMT and that metabolic shifts can directly influence aberrant cell function. This has led to the hypothesis that inhibition of lactate dehydrogenase 5 (LDH5), an enzyme responsible for converting pyruvate into lactate, could constitute a therapeutic concept for IPF. METHODS: In this study, we investigated the potential link between aerobic glycolysis and FMT using a potent LDH5 inhibitor (Compound 408, Genentech). Seahorse analysis was performed to determine the effect of Compound 408 on TGF-ß1-driven glycolysis in WI-38 fibroblasts. TGF-ß1-mediated FMT was measured by quantifying α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and fibronectin in primary human lung fibroblasts following treatment with Compound 408. Lactate and pyruvate levels in the cell culture supernatant were assessed by LC-MS/MS. In addition to pharmacological LDH5 inhibition, the effect of siRNA-mediated knockdown of LDHA and LDHB on FMT was examined. RESULTS: We show that treatment of lung fibroblasts with Compound 408 efficiently inhibits LDH5 and attenuates the TGF-ß1-mediated metabolic shift towards aerobic glycolysis. Additionally, we demonstrate that LDH5 inhibition has no significant effect on TGF-ß1-mediated FMT in primary human lung fibroblasts by analysing α-SMA fibre formation and fibronectin expression. CONCLUSIONS: Our data strongly suggest that while LDH5 inhibition can prevent metabolic shifts in fibroblasts, it has no influence on FMT and therefore glycolytic dysregulation is unlikely to be the sole driver of FMT.

Metformin attenuates the effect of Staphylococcus aureus on airway tight junctions by increasing PKCζ-mediated phosphorylation of occludin.

Airway epithelial tight junction (TJ) proteins form a resistive barrier to the external environment, however, during respiratory bacterial infection TJs become disrupted compromising barrier function. This promotes glucose flux/accumulation into the lumen which acts as a nutrient source for bacterial growth. Metformin used for the treatment of diabetes increases transepithelial resistance (TEER) and partially prevents the effect of bacteria but the mechanisms of action are unclear. We investigated the effect of metformin and Staphylococcus aureus on TJ proteins, zonula occludins (ZO)-1 and occludin in human airway epithelial cells (H441). We also explored the role of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and PKCζ in metformin-induced effects. Pretreatment with metformin prevented the S. aureus-induced changes in ZO-1 and occludin. Metformin also promoted increased abundance of full length over smaller cleaved occludin proteins. The nonspecific PKC inhibitor staurosporine reduced TEER but did not prevent the effect of metformin indicating that the pathway may involve atypical PKC isoforms. Investigation of TJ reassembly after calcium depletion showed that metformin increased TEER more rapidly and promoted the abundance and localization of occludin at the TJ. These effects were inhibited by the AMPK inhibitor, compound C and the PKCζ pseudosubstrate inhibitor (PSI). Metformin increased phosphorylation of occludin and acetyl-coA-carboxylase but only the former was prevented by PSI. This study demonstrates that metformin improves TJ barrier function by promoting the abundance and assembly of full length occludin at the TJ and that this process involves phosphorylation of the protein via an AMPK-PKCζ pathway.

Excess Mucin Impairs Subglottic Epithelial Host Defense in Mechanically Ventilated Patients.

RATIONALE: Aspiration of infective subglottic secretions causes ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) in mechanically ventilated patients. Mechanisms underlying subglottic colonization in critical illness have not been defined, limiting strategies for targeted prevention of VAP. OBJECTIVES: To characterize subglottic host defense dysfunction in mechanically ventilated patients in the ICU; to determine whether subglottic mucin contributes to neutrophil phagocytic impairment and bacterial growth. METHODS: Prospective subglottic sampling in mechanically ventilated patients (intubated for four or more days), and newly intubated control patients (intubated for less than 30 min); isolation and culture of primary subglottic epithelial cells from control patients; laboratory analysis of host innate immune defenses. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Twenty-four patients in the ICU and 27 newly intubated control patients were studied. Subglottic ICU samples had significantly reduced microbiological diversity and contained potential respiratory pathogens. The subglottic microenvironment in the ICU was characterized by neutrophilic inflammation, significantly increased proinflammatory cytokines and neutrophil proteases, and altered physical properties of subglottic secretions, including accumulation of mucins. Subglottic mucin from ICU patients impaired the capacity of neutrophils to phagocytose and kill bacteria. Phagocytic impairment was reversible on treatment with a mucolytic agent. Subglottic mucus promoted growth and invasion of bacterial pathogens in a novel air-liquid interface model of primary human subglottic epithelium. CONCLUSIONS: Mechanical ventilation in the ICU is characterized by substantial mucin secretion and neutrophilic inflammation. Mucin impairs neutrophil function and promotes bacterial growth. Mucolytic agents reverse mucin-mediated neutrophil dysfunction. Enhanced mucus disruption and removal has potential to augment preventive benefits of subglottic drainage.

Dapagliflozin-lowered blood glucose reduces respiratory Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in diabetic mice.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Hyperglycaemia increases glucose concentrations in airway surface liquid and increases the risk of pulmonary Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. We determined whether reduction of blood and airway glucose concentrations by the anti-diabetic drug dapagliflozin could reduce P. aeruginosa growth/survival in the lungs of diabetic mice. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH: The effect of dapagliflozin on blood and airway glucose concentration, the inflammatory response and infection were investigated in C57BL/6J (wild type, WT) or leptin receptor-deficient (db/db) mice, treated orally with dapagliflozin prior to intranasal dosing with LPS or inoculation with P. aeruginosa. Pulmonary glucose transport and fluid absorption were investigated in Wistar rats using the perfused fluid-filled lung technique. KEY RESULTS: Fasting blood, airway glucose and lactate concentrations were elevated in the db/db mouse lung. LPS challenge increased inflammatory cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from WT and db/db mice with and without dapagliflozin treatment. P. aeruginosa colony-forming units (CFU) were increased in db/db lungs. Pretreatment with dapagliflozin reduced blood and bronchoalveolar lavage glucose concentrations and P. aeruginosa CFU in db/db mice towards those seen in WT. Dapagliflozin had no adverse effects on the inflammatory response in the mouse or pulmonary glucose transport or fluid absorption in the rat lung. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Pharmacological lowering of blood glucose with dapagliflozin effectively reduced P. aeruginosa infection in the lungs of diabetic mice and had no adverse pulmonary effects in the rat. Dapagliflozin has potential to reduce the use, or augment the effect, of antimicrobials in the prevention or treatment of pulmonary infection.

Differential Effect of LPS on Glucose, Lactate and Inflammatory Markers in the Lungs of Normal and Diabetic Mice.

Elevation of blood glucose results in increased glucose in the fluid that lines the surface of the airways and this is associated with an increased susceptibility to infection with respiratory pathogens. Infection induces an inflammatory response in the lung, but how this is altered by hyperglycemia and how this affects glucose, lactate and cytokine concentrations in the airway surface liquid is not understood. We used Wild Type (WT) and glucokinase heterozygote (GK+/-) mice to investigate the effect of hyperglycemia, with and without LPS-induced inflammatory responses, on airway glucose, lactate, inflammatory cells and cytokines measured in Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid (BALF). We found that glucose and lactate concentrations in BALF were elevated in GK+/- compared to WT mice and that there was a direct correlation between blood glucose and BALF glucose concentrations. LPS challenge increased BALF inflammatory cell numbers and this correlated with decreased glucose and increased lactate concentrations although the effect was less in GK+/- compared to WT mice. All cytokines measured (except IL-2) increased in BALF with LPS challenge. However, concentrations of TNFα, INFγ, IL-1ß and IL-2 were less in GK+/- compared to WT mice. This study shows that the normal glucose/lactate environment of the airway surface liquid is altered by hyperglycemia and the inflammatory response. These data indicate that inflammatory cells utilize BALF glucose and that production of lactate and cytokines is compromised in hyperglycemic GK+/- mice.

Increased airway glucose increases airway bacterial load in hyperglycaemia.

Diabetes is associated with increased frequency of hospitalization due to bacterial lung infection. We hypothesize that increased airway glucose caused by hyperglycaemia leads to increased bacterial loads. In critical care patients, we observed that respiratory tract bacterial colonisation is significantly more likely when blood glucose is high. We engineered mutants in genes affecting glucose uptake and metabolism (oprB, gltK, gtrS and glk) in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, strain PAO1. These mutants displayed attenuated growth in minimal medium supplemented with glucose as the sole carbon source. The effect of glucose on growth in vivo was tested using streptozocin-induced, hyperglycaemic mice, which have significantly greater airway glucose. Bacterial burden in hyperglycaemic animals was greater than control animals when infected with wild type but not mutant PAO1. Metformin pre-treatment of hyperglycaemic animals reduced both airway glucose and bacterial load. These data support airway glucose as a critical determinant of increased bacterial load during diabetes.

Metformin prevents the effects of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on airway epithelial tight junctions and restricts hyperglycaemia-induced bacterial growth.

Lung disease and elevation of blood glucose are associated with increased glucose concentration in the airway surface liquid (ASL). Raised ASL glucose is associated with increased susceptibility to infection by respiratory pathogens including Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We have previously shown that the anti-diabetes drug, metformin, reduces glucose-induced S. aureus growth across in vitro airway epithelial cultures. The aim of this study was to investigate whether metformin has the potential to reduce glucose-induced P. aeruginosa infections across airway epithelial (Calu-3) cultures by limiting glucose permeability. We also explored the effect of P. aeruginosa and metformin on airway epithelial barrier function by investigating changes in tight junction protein abundance. Apical P. aeruginosa growth increased with basolateral glucose concentration, reduced transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) and increased paracellular glucose flux. Metformin pre-treatment of the epithelium inhibited the glucose-induced growth of P. aeruginosa, increased TEER and decreased glucose flux. Similar effects on bacterial growth and TEER were observed with the AMP activated protein kinase agonist, 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide. Interestingly, metformin was able to prevent the P. aeruginosa-induced reduction in the abundance of tight junction proteins, claudin-1 and occludin. Our study highlights the potential of metformin to reduce hyperglycaemia-induced P. aeruginosa growth through airway epithelial tight junction modulation, and that claudin-1 and occludin could be important targets to regulate glucose permeability across airway epithelia and supress bacterial growth. Further investigation into the mechanisms regulating metformin and P. aeruginosa action on airway epithelial tight junctions could yield new therapeutic targets to prevent/suppress hyperglycaemia-induced respiratory infections, avoiding the use of antibiotics.

Airway surface liquid homeostasis in cystic fibrosis: pathophysiology and therapeutic targets.

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a life-limiting disease characterised by recurrent respiratory infections, inflammation and lung damage. The volume and composition of the airway surface liquid (ASL) are important in maintaining ciliary function, mucociliary clearance and antimicrobial properties of the airway. In CF, these homeostatic mechanisms are impaired, leading to a dehydrated and acidic ASL. ASL volume depletion in CF is secondary to defective anion transport by the abnormal cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator protein (CFTR). Abnormal CFTR mediated bicarbonate transport creates an unfavourable, acidic environment, which impairs antimicrobial function and alters mucus properties and clearance. These disease mechanisms create a disordered airway milieu, consisting of thick mucopurulent secretions and chronic bacterial infection. In addition to CFTR, there are additional ion channels and transporters in the apical airway epithelium that play a role in maintaining ASL homeostasis. These include the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC), the solute carrier 26A (SLC26A) family of anion exchangers, and calcium-activated chloride channels. In this review we discuss how the ASL is abnormal in CF and how targeting these alternative channels and transporters could provide an attractive therapeutic strategy to correct the underlying ASL abnormalities evident in CF.

Hypercapnia modulates cAMP signalling and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator-dependent anion and fluid secretion in airway epithelia.

Hypercapnia is clinically defined as an arterial blood partial pressure of CO2 of above 40 mmHg and is a feature of chronic lung disease. In previous studies we have demonstrated that hypercapnia modulates agonist-stimulated cAMP levels through effects on transmembrane adenylyl cyclase activity. In the airways, cAMP is known to regulate cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR)-mediated anion and fluid secretion, which contributes to airway surface liquid homeostasis. The aim of the current work was to investigate if hypercapnia could modulate cAMP-regulated ion and fluid transport in human airway epithelial cells. We found that acute exposure to hypercapnia significantly reduced forskolin-stimulated elevations in intracellular cAMP as well as both adenosine- and forskolin-stimulated increases in CFTR-dependent transepithelial short-circuit current, in polarised cultures of Calu-3 human airway cells. This CO2 -induced reduction in anion secretion was not due to a decrease in HCO3 (-) transport given that neither a change in CFTR-dependent HCO3 (-) efflux nor Na(+) /HCO3 (-) cotransporter-dependent HCO3 (-) influx were CO2 -sensitive. Hypercapnia also reduced the volume of forskolin-stimulated fluid secretion over 24 h, yet had no effect on the HCO3 (-) content of the secreted fluid. Our data reveal that hypercapnia reduces CFTR-dependent, electrogenic Cl(-) and fluid secretion, but not CFTR-dependent HCO3 (-) secretion, which highlights a differential sensitivity of Cl(-) and HCO3 (-) transporters to raised CO2 in Calu-3 cells. Hypercapnia also reduced forskolin-stimulated CFTR-dependent anion secretion in primary human airway epithelia. Based on current models of airways biology, a reduction in fluid secretion, associated with hypercapnia, would be predicted to have important consequences for airways hydration and the innate defence mechanisms of the lungs.