Polypharmacy in Children and Young People With Life-limiting Conditions From 2000 to 2015: A Repeated Cross-sectional Study in England.

CONTEXT: Polypharmacy is often appropriate for children with life-limiting conditions but is associated with an increase in hospitalizations and inappropriate prescribing, and can affect the quality of life of children and their families as they manage complex medication schedules. Despite this, little is known about polypharmacy in this population. OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence and patterns of polypharmacy in children with a life-limiting condition in a nationally representative cohort in England. METHODS: Observational study of children (age 0-19 years) with a life-limiting condition in a national database from 2000 to 2015. Common definitions of polypharmacy were used to determine polypharmacy prevalence in each year based on unique medications and regular medications. Hierarchical regression analyses were used to explore factors associated with polypharmacy. RESULTS: Data on 15,829 individuals were included. Each year 27%-39% of children were prescribed ≥5 unique medications and 8%-12% were prescribed ≥10. Children with a respiratory (OR 7.6, 95%CI 6.4-9.0), neurological (OR 2.8, 95%CI 2.4-3.2), or metabolic (OR 2.2, 95%CI 1.7-2.8) condition were more likely than those with a congenital condition to experience polypharmacy. Increasing age, being diagnosed with a LLC under one year of age, having >1 life-limiting or chronic condition or living in areas of higher deprivation were also associated with higher prevalence of polypharmacy. CONCLUSION: Children with life-limiting conditions have a high prevalence of polypharmacy and some children are at greater risk than others. More research is needed to understand and address the factors that lead to problematic polypharmacy in this population.

Estimating the current and future prevalence of life-limiting conditions in children in England.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies showed increasing number of children with a life-limiting or life-threatening condition who may benefit from input from pediatric palliative care services. AIM: To estimate the current prevalence of children with a life-limiting condition and to model future prevalence of this population. DESIGN: Observational study using national inpatient hospital data. A population-based approach utilizing ethnic specific population projections was used to estimate future prevalence. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS: All children aged 0-19 years with a life-limiting condition diagnostic code recorded in Hospital Episodes Statistics data in England from 2000/01 to 2017/18. RESULTS: Data on 4,543,386 hospital episodes for 359,634 individuals were included. The prevalence of children with a life-limiting condition rose from 26.7 per 10,000 (95%CI 26.5-27.0) in 2001/02 to 66.4 per 10,000 (95% CI: 66.0-66.8) in 2017/18. Using a more restricted definition of a life-limiting condition reduced the prevalence from 66.4 to 61.1 per 10,000 (95%CI 60.7-61.5) in 2017/18. Highest prevalence was in the under 1-year age group at 226.5 per 10,000 and children with a congenital abnormality had the highest prevalence (27.2 per 10,000 (95%CI: 26.9-27.5)).The prevalence was highest among the most deprived group and in children of Pakistani origin.Predicted future prevalence of life-limiting conditions ranged from 67.0 (95%CI 67.7-66.3) to 84.22 (95%CI 78.66-90.17) per 10,000 by 2030. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of children with a life-limiting or life-threatening condition in England has risen over the last 17 years and is predicted to increase. Future data collections must include the data required to assess the complex health and social care needs of these children.

Place of death of children and young adults with a life-limiting condition in England: a retrospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess trends in place of death for children with a life-limiting condition and the factors associated with death at home or hospice rather than hospital. DESIGN: Observational cohort study using linked routinely collected data. SETTING: England. PATIENTS: Children aged 0-25 years who died between 2003 and 2017. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Place of death: hospital, hospice, home. Multivariable multinomial logistic regression models. RESULTS: 39 349 children died: 73% occurred in hospital, 6% in hospice and 16% at home. In the multivariable models compared with dying in a hospital: neonates were less likely, and those aged 1-10 years more likely, than those aged 28 days to <1 year to die in hospice. Children from all ethnic minority groups were significantly less likely to die in hospice, as were those in the most deprived group (RR 0.8, 95% CI 0.7 to 0.9). Those who died from 2008 were more likely than those who died earlier to die in a hospice.Children with cancer (RR 4.4, 95% CI 3.8 to 5.1), neurological (RR 2.0, 95% CI 1.7 to 2.3) or metabolic (RR 3.7, 95% CI 3.0 to 4.6) diagnoses were more likely than those with a congenital diagnosis to die in a hospice.Similar patterns were seen for clinical/demographic factors associated with home versus hospital deaths. CONCLUSIONS: Most children with a life-limiting condition continue to die in the hospital setting. Further research on preferences for place of death is needed especially in children with conditions other than cancer. Paediatric palliative care services should be funded adequately to enable equal access across all settings, diagnostic groups and geographical regions.

Childhood overweight and obesity and the risk of depression across the lifespan.

BACKGROUND: Obesity has been longitudinally associated with depression but only few studies take a life course approach. This longitudinal study investigates whether being overweight or obese at age 8 and 13 years is associated with depressive symptoms more than 60 years later and whether this association is independent of late-life body mass index (BMI). We also investigated the association of being overweight/obese at age 8 or 13 years with ever having major depressive disorder (lifetime MDD). METHOD: This analysis is based on a sub-sample of 889 AGES-Reykjavik participants with measured BMI data from early life. Late-life depressive symptoms were measured with the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) and lifetime MDD was assessed at late-life using the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview. Logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the relationships between BMI (continuous and categorical) at age 8 or 13 years, and late-life depressive symptoms (measured as GDS ≥ 5) or lifetime MDD, adjusted for sex, education, physical activity, smoking status and alcohol use. In a separate model, additional adjustments were made for late-life BMI. RESULTS: One hundred and one subjects (11%) had depressive symptoms at late-life (GDS ≥ 5), and 39 subjects (4.4%) had lifetime MDD. Being overweight or obese at age 8 or 13 years was not associated with higher depressive symptoms during late-life, irrespective of late-life BMI. Being overweight or obese at age 8 years, but not age 13 years was associated with an increased risk of lifetime MDD (Odds Ratio (OR) (95% confidence interval [CI]) for age 8 = 4.03[1.16-13.96]P = 0.03 and age 13 = 2.65[0.69-10.26] P = 0.16, respectively). CONCLUSION: Being overweight in childhood was associated with increased odds of lifetime MDD, although the magnitude of the risk is uncertain given the small numbers of participants with lifetime MDD. No clear association was observed between childhood and adolescent overweight/obesity and late-life depressive symptoms irrespective of late life BMI.

Association of a priori dietary patterns with depressive symptoms: a harmonised meta-analysis of observational studies.

BACKGROUND: Review findings on the role of dietary patterns in preventing depression are inconsistent, possibly due to variation in assessment of dietary exposure and depression. We studied the association between dietary patterns and depressive symptoms in six population-based cohorts and meta-analysed the findings using a standardised approach that defined dietary exposure, depression assessment and covariates. METHODS: Included were cross-sectional data from 23 026 participants in six cohorts: InCHIANTI (Italy), LASA, NESDA, HELIUS (the Netherlands), ALSWH (Australia) and Whitehall II (UK). Analysis of incidence was based on three cohorts with repeated measures of depressive symptoms at 5-6 years of follow-up in 10 721 participants: Whitehall II, InCHIANTI, ALSWH. Three a priori dietary patterns, Mediterranean diet score (MDS), Alternative Healthy Eating Index (AHEI-2010), and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet were investigated in relation to depressive symptoms. Analyses at the cohort-level adjusted for a fixed set of confounders, meta-analysis used a random-effects model. RESULTS: Cross-sectional and prospective analyses showed statistically significant inverse associations of the three dietary patterns with depressive symptoms (continuous and dichotomous). In cross-sectional analysis, the association of diet with depressive symptoms using a cut-off yielded an adjusted OR of 0.87 (95% confidence interval 0.84-0.91) for MDS, 0.93 (0.88-0.98) for AHEI-2010, and 0.94 (0.87-1.01) for DASH. Similar associations were observed prospectively: 0.88 (0.80-0.96) for MDS; 0.95 (0.84-1.06) for AHEI-2010; 0.90 (0.84-0.97) for DASH. CONCLUSION: Population-scale observational evidence indicates that adults following a healthy dietary pattern have fewer depressive symptoms and lower risk of developing depressive symptoms.

Association of food groups with depression and anxiety disorders.

PURPOSE: Adherence to the Mediterranean diet has been associated with fewer depressive symptoms, however, it is unknown whether this is attributed to some or to all components. We examined the association between the individual food groups of the Mediterranean Diet Score (MDS), in isolation and in combination, with depression and anxiety (symptom severity and diagnosis). METHODS: Data from 1634 adults were available from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety. Eleven energy-adjusted food groups were created from a 238-item food frequency questionnaire. In regression analysis, these were associated in isolation and combination with (1) depressive and anxiety disorders (established with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview) (current disorder n = 414), and (2) depression and anxiety severity [measured with the Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (IDS), the Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI) and the Fear Questionnaire (FEAR)]. RESULTS: Overall, the MDS score shows the strongest relationships with depression/anxiety [Diagnosis: odds ratio (OR) 0.77 per SD, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) 0.66-0.90, IDS: standardised betas (ß) - 0.13, 95% CI - 0.18, - 0.08] and anxiety (BAI: ß - 0.11, 95% CI - 0.16, - 0.06, FEAR: ß - 0.08, 95% CI - 0.13, - 0.03). Greater consumption of non-refined grains and vegetables was associated with lower depression and anxiety severity, whilst being a non-drinker was associated with higher symptom severity. Higher fruit and vegetable intake was associated with lower fear severity. Non-refined grain consumption was associated with lower odds and being a non-drinker with greater odds of current depression/anxiety disorders compared to healthy controls, these associations persisted after adjustment for other food groups (OR 0.82 per SD, 95% CI 0.71-0.96, OR 1.26 per SD 95% CI 1.08-1.46). CONCLUSION: We can conclude that non-refined grains, vegetables and alcohol intake appeared to be the driving variables for the associated the total MDS score and depression/anxiety. However, the combined effect of the whole diet remains important for mental health. It should be explored whether an increase consumption of non-refined grains and vegetables may help to prevent or reduce depression and anxiety.

Depression and eating styles are independently associated with dietary intake.

Depression and eating styles are two important, interrelated factors associated with dietary intake. However, it remains unclear whether depression and eating styles are independently associated with dietary intake, and whether associations between depression and dietary intake are mediated by eating styles. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to investigate the associations of, and interplay between depression and eating styles in relation to different aspects of dietary intake. Cross-sectional data from 1442 participants (healthy controls (22.7%), remitted (61.0%) and current patients (16.3%)) from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety were used. Linear regression analyses were used to determine associations of depressive disorders (DSM-IV based psychiatric interview), self-reported depressive symptoms (Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology), emotional, external and restrained eating (Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire) with 4 measures of dietary intake (total energy intake (kcal/d), Mediterranean diet score (MDS), intake of sweets foods (g/d), and snack/fast-food (g/d)) measured with a 238-item food frequency questionnaire. Statistical mediation analyses were used to study whether associations between depression and dietary intake were mediated by eating styles. Current depression diagnosis and severity were associated with lower MDS and higher intake of sweet foods and snack/fast-food. Emotional and external eating were associated with higher intakes of snack/fast-food; external eating was also associated with higher total energy intake. Restrained eating was associated with lower total energy and intake of sweet foods, and higher MDS. Associations between current depression or severity and intake of snack/fast-food were mediated by external eating. In general, depression and eating styles contributed independently to poorer diet quality and higher intake of sweet and snack/fast-food. The association between depression and higher intake of snack/fast-food was mediated by external eating.

Diet quality in persons with and without depressive and anxiety disorders.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines the association of depressive and anxiety disorders and their clinical characteristics (disorder type, severity, chronicity and clinical subtypes) with diet quality. METHOD: Data from 1634 adults (controls = 336, current disorder = 414, remitted = 886) were sourced from the 9-year follow-up of the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety. Depressive and anxiety disorders were established with Composite International Diagnostic Interviews. Severity was measured with the Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (IDS), Fear Questionnaire and the Beck Anxiety Inventory. Chronicity was measured with life-chart interviews expressed as percentage time with a disorder(s). Diet quality was evaluated using the Mediterranean Diet Score (MDS) and the Alternative Healthy Eating Index (AHEI). RESULTS: Diet quality was significantly worse among subjects with a current disorder than among healthy controls. Subdividing subjects showed that those with concurrent depressive and anxiety disorders had the lowest diet quality score (MDS: ß = -0.41 per SD, 95% Confidence interval (95%CI) = -0.60, -0.21; AHEI ß = -0.22 per SD 95% CI = -0.42,-0.03). More chronic depression or anxiety disorders and increased severity in all participants showed a dose-response association with poorer diet quality. There was no distinct pattern between IDS items related to depression subtypes and diet quality. CONCLUSION: Diet quality is poorer in persons with depressive and anxiety disorders; in particular in those with comorbidity. The more severe and chronic the symptoms, the poorer the diet quality. Prospective studies are needed to confirm the direction of the relationship of depressive and anxiety disorders with diet quality and to examine whether improving diet quality could improve mental health.

The relation between obesity and depressed mood in a multi-ethnic population. The HELIUS study.

PURPOSE: To examine the association between obesity and depressed mood in a large multi-ethnic population and check for consistency in this association across six ethnic groups. METHODS: Data of 21,030 persons (18-70 years) were sourced from the HELIUS study. Cross-sectional relationships between obesity measures [body mass index (kg/m2) and waist circumference (cm)] and depressed mood (PHQ-9 score ≥ 10) were analysed. Consistency of associations was investigated across ethnic groups by interaction terms (ethnicity*obesity measures) in basic (age, sex, education) and fully (health behaviours and somatic health) adjusted models. RESULTS: Obesity was prevalent in all ethnic groups, but varied substantially. After sociodemographic adjustment, obesity measures were associated with increased odds of depressed mood but this was inconsistent across ethnic groups. Obesity (BMI ≥ 30 or highest waist circumference quartile) was strongly and significantly associated with depressed mood in the Dutch [Odds Ratio (OR) = 1.72; 95% Confidence intervals (CI) 1.24-2.40, and OR = 1.86; 95% CI 1.38-2.50], respectively, and African Surinamese (OR = 1.60; 95% CI 1.29-1.98 and OR = 1.59; 95% CI 1.27-2.00, respectively) but had a weaker, non-significant association in other ethnic groups (South-Asian Surinamese, Ghanaian, Moroccan, Turkish groups). Adjustment for health behaviours and somatic health had limited effect on this pattern. CONCLUSION: Obesity was associated with a higher risk of depressed mood. However, ethnic differences were found: the obesity-depressed mood association was strong in the Dutch and African Surinamese populations, but not in other ethnic groups. Future studies should explore whether differential normative values or pathophysiology across ethnic groups explain why the obesity-depression association is inconsistent across ethnic groups.

Which biopsychosocial variables contribute to more weight gain in depressed persons?

Depression appears to be associated with weight gain. Little is known about whether this association is independent of, or partly due to, several biopsychosocial variables. This study aims to investigate which biopsychosocial variables contribute to weight gain over a 4-year period in persons with major depressive disorder (MDD) or high depressive symptoms. Data from 1658 adults who participated in the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety were used. Baseline depression was measured with a DSM-IV based psychiatric interview and with a depressive symptom measure. Four year weight gain was classified as stable weight (within 5% gain or loss) versus weight gain (>5% gain). Twenty-one baseline psychological, lifestyle and biological variables and antidepressant use were considered as potential contributing variables. In sociodemographic adjusted models, MDD and depressive symptoms were associated with subsequent weight gain. None of the biopsychosocial variables or antidepressants was associated with weight gain, thus did not contribute to the observed increased weight gain risk in depression, except for alcohol intake and TCA use. Future research should explore other potential factors that may be responsible for the increased risk for subsequent weight gain in depression, e.g. unhealthy dietary patterns or eating styles, or underlying intrinsic factors such as genetics.

The association between personality traits, cognitive reactivity and body mass index is dependent on depressive and/or anxiety status.

OBJECTIVE: A range of biological, social and psychological factors, including depression and anxiety disorders, is thought to be associated with higher body mass index (BMI). Depression and anxiety disorders are associated with specific psychological vulnerabilities, like personality traits and cognitive reactivity, that may also be associated with BMI. The relationship between those psychological vulnerabilities and BMI is possibly different in people with and without depression and anxiety disorders. Therefore, we examined the relationship between personality traits, cognitive reactivity and severity of affective symptoms with BMI in people with and without depression and anxiety disorders. METHODS: Data from 1249 patients with current major depressive and/or anxiety disorder and 631 healthy controls were sourced from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety. Linear and logistic regression analyses were used to determine the associations between personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness), cognitive reactivity (hopelessness, aggression, rumination, anxiety sensitivity), depression and anxiety symptoms with BMI classes (normal: 18.5-24.9, overweight: 25-29.9, and obese: ≥30kg/m(2)) and continuous BMI. Due to significant statistical interaction, analyses were stratified for healthy individuals and depressed/anxious patients. RESULTS: Personality traits were not consistently related to BMI. In patients, higher hopelessness and aggression reactivity and higher depression and anxiety symptoms were associated with higher BMI. In contrast, in healthy individuals lower scores on hopelessness, rumination, aggression reactivity and anxiety sensitivity were associated with higher BMI. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that, particularly in people with psychopathology, cognitive reactivity may contribute to obesity.

The role of obesity measures in the development and persistence of major depressive disorder.

BACKGROUND: The role of obesity with the development of major depressive disorder (MDD) requires conformation and whether obesity contributes to more chronic depression in persons with established (MDD) is unknown. This study examined the longitudinal relationship of body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference with the incidence and persistence of MDD over 2-year and 6-year periods. METHOD: Data were sourced from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety. MDD was established with Composite International Diagnostic Interviews. The relationship of BMI and waist circumference with the development of depression two and six years later were estimated in the subsample with no current psychopathology at baseline. Associations with the persistence of depression was estimated in the subsample with current MDD. RESULTS: Higher BMI at baseline, but not waist circumference, slightly increased the odds of the development of MDD after two years (odds ratio (OR) per standard deviation increase: 1.11; p=0.03), This relationship was not significant after adjustment for health and lifestyle variables. Conversely, over a 6-year period both BMI and waist circumference moderately increased the odds of developing MDD even after adjustment (OR:1.17; p=0.05, OR:1.20; p=0.05). Persistence of MDD in currently depressed subjects, is not related with BMI or waist circumference (adjusted OR:0.93; p=0.2, OR:0.91; p=0.15). LIMITATIONS: Development of depression may differ in participants lost to follow-up. CONCLUSION: Over a 6 year period, patients with higher BMI show a slightly increased risk of development of depression. However, in depressed patients there is no relationship between BMI and the persistence of depression.

Major depressive disorder, antidepressant use, and subsequent 2-year weight change patterns in the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety.

BACKGROUND: Although depression and obesity are bidirectionally associated, little is known about weight changes following major depressive disorder (MDD). This study compared 2-year weight changes between patients with current MDD (cMDD), patients with remitted MDD (rMDD), and healthy controls. Additionally, we examined the relationship between antidepressant medication use and 2-year weight change. METHOD: Data from 2,542 adults aged 18-65 y were sourced from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety. Data were collected at baseline and after 2, 4, and 6 years (September 2004-April 2013). Depression status (DSM-IV criteria for MDD) was established with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Subsequent 2-year weight changes were categorized as weight loss (> 5% loss), weight stable (within 5% weight loss or gain), and weight gain (> 5% gain). The association of depression status with subsequent weight change, with weight stable as reference category, was studied by combining all repeated measurements in a mixed multinomial logistical regression model. RESULTS: cMDD, but not rMDD, was significantly associated with both weight gain and weight loss over a 2-year period after adjustment for covariates (odds ratio [OR] = 1.67; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.37-2.03; P < .001; and OR = 1.27; 95% CI 1.01-1.61; P = .045, respectively). Antidepressant use was associated with weight gain (SSRIs: OR = 1.26; 95% CI, 1.05-1.52; other antidepressants: OR = 1.36; 95% CI, 1.00-1.84; P < .05 for both), but not after considering depression status. Compared to cMDD patients who lost weight, those who gained weight had lower initial weight, were younger, had more comorbid anxiety disorders, and reported poorer quality of mood and reduced appetite as depressive symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to controls, cMDD participants have greater odds of either gaining or losing weight over a 2-year period, regardless of antidepressant use.