Direct Salmonella injection into enteroid cells allows the study of host-pathogen interactions in the cytosol with high spatiotemporal resolution.

Intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) play pivotal roles in nutrient uptake and in the protection against gut microorganisms. However, certain enteric pathogens, such as Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Tm), can invade IECs by employing flagella and type III secretion systems (T3SSs) with cognate effector proteins and exploit IECs as a replicative niche. Detection of flagella or T3SS proteins by IECs results in rapid host cell responses, i.e., the activation of inflammasomes. Here, we introduce a single-cell manipulation technology based on fluidic force microscopy (FluidFM) that enables direct bacteria delivery into the cytosol of single IECs within a murine enteroid monolayer. This approach allows to specifically study pathogen-host cell interactions in the cytosol uncoupled from preceding events such as docking, initiation of uptake, or vacuole escape. Consistent with current understanding, we show using a live-cell inflammasome reporter that exposure of the IEC cytosol to S. Tm induces NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasomes via its known ligands flagellin and T3SS rod and needle. Injected S. Tm mutants devoid of these invasion-relevant ligands were able to grow in the cytosol of IECs despite the absence of T3SS functions, suggesting that, in the absence of NAIP/NLRC4 inflammasome activation and the ensuing cell death, no effector-mediated host cell manipulation is required to render the epithelial cytosol growth-permissive for S. Tm. Overall, the experimental system to introduce S. Tm into single enteroid cells enables investigations into the molecular basis governing host-pathogen interactions in the cytosol with high spatiotemporal resolution.

Live-seq enables temporal transcriptomic recording of single cells.

Single-cell transcriptomics (scRNA-seq) has greatly advanced our ability to characterize cellular heterogeneity1. However, scRNA-seq requires lysing cells, which impedes further molecular or functional analyses on the same cells. Here, we established Live-seq, a single-cell transcriptome profiling approach that preserves cell viability during RNA extraction using fluidic force microscopy2,3, thus allowing to couple a cell's ground-state transcriptome to its downstream molecular or phenotypic behaviour. To benchmark Live-seq, we used cell growth, functional responses and whole-cell transcriptome read-outs to demonstrate that Live-seq can accurately stratify diverse cell types and states without inducing major cellular perturbations. As a proof of concept, we show that Live-seq can be used to directly map a cell's trajectory by sequentially profiling the transcriptomes of individual macrophages before and after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation, and of adipose stromal cells pre- and post-differentiation. In addition, we demonstrate that Live-seq can function as a transcriptomic recorder by preregistering the transcriptomes of individual macrophages that were subsequently monitored by time-lapse imaging after LPS exposure. This enabled the unsupervised, genome-wide ranking of genes on the basis of their ability to affect macrophage LPS response heterogeneity, revealing basal Nfkbia expression level and cell cycle state as important phenotypic determinants, which we experimentally validated. Thus, Live-seq can address a broad range of biological questions by transforming scRNA-seq from an end-point to a temporal analysis approach.

Uncoupling bacterial attachment on and detachment from polydimethylsiloxane surfaces through empirical and simulation studies.

Bacterial infections related to medical devices can cause severe problems, whose solution requires in-depth understanding of the interactions between bacteria and surfaces. This work investigates the influence of surface physicochemistry on bacterial attachment and detachment under flow through both empirical and simulation studies. We employed polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) substrates having different degrees of crosslinking as the model material and the extended Derjaguin - Landau - Verwey - Overbeek model as the simulation method. Experimentally, the different PDMS materials led to similar numbers of attached bacteria, which can be rationalized by the identical energy barriers simulated between bacteria and the different materials. However, different numbers of residual bacteria after detachment were observed, which was suggested by simulation that the detachment process is determined by the interfacial physicochemistry rather than the mechanical property of a material. This finding is further supported by analyzing the bacteria detachment from PDMS substrates from which non-crosslinked polymer chains had been removed: similar numbers of residual bacteria were found on the extracted PDMS substrates. The knowledge gained in this work can facilitate the projection of bacterial colonization on a given surface.

Injection into and extraction from single fungal cells.

The direct delivery of molecules and the sampling of endogenous compounds into and from living cells provide powerful means to modulate and study cellular functions. Intracellular injection and extraction remain challenging for fungal cells that possess a cell wall. The most common methods for intracellular delivery into fungi rely on the initial degradation of the cell wall to generate protoplasts, a step that represents a major bottleneck in terms of time, efficiency, standardization, and cell viability. Here, we show that fluidic force microscopy enables the injection of solutions and cytoplasmic fluid extraction into and out of individual fungal cells, including unicellular model yeasts and multicellular filamentous fungi. The approach is strain- and cargo-independent and opens new opportunities for manipulating and analyzing fungi. We also perturb individual hyphal compartments within intact mycelial networks to study the cellular response at the single cell level.

Mitochondria transplantation between living cells.

Mitochondria and the complex endomembrane system are hallmarks of eukaryotic cells. To date, it has been difficult to manipulate organelle structures within single live cells. We developed a FluidFM-based approach to extract, inject, and transplant organelles from and into living cells with subcellular spatial resolution. The technology combines atomic force microscopy, optical microscopy, and nanofluidics to achieve force and volume control with real-time inspection. We developed dedicated probes that allow minimally invasive entry into cells and optimized fluid flow to extract specific organelles. When extracting single or a defined number of mitochondria, their morphology transforms into a pearls-on-a-string phenotype due to locally applied fluidic forces. We show that the induced transition is calcium independent and results in isolated, intact mitochondria. Upon cell-to-cell transplantation, the transferred mitochondria fuse to the host cells mitochondrial network. Transplantation of healthy and drug-impaired mitochondria into primary keratinocytes allowed monitoring of mitochondrial subpopulation rescue. Fusion with the mitochondrial network of recipient cells occurred 20 minutes after transplantation and continued for over 16 hours. After transfer of mitochondria and cell propagation over generations, donor mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was replicated in recipient cells without the need for selection pressure. The approach opens new prospects for the study of organelle physiology and homeostasis, but also for therapy, mechanobiology, and synthetic biology.

Bioinspired, nanoscale approaches in contemporary bioanalytics (Review).

The genesis for this topical review stems from the interdisciplinary Biointerfaces International conference 2016 (BI 2016) in Zurich, Switzerland, wherein the need for advances in analytical tools was both expressed and addressed. Pushing the limits of detection for characterizing individual components, such as single proteins, single drug-delivery vehicles, or probing single living cells in a more natural environment, will contribute to the understanding of the complex biomolecular systems central to a number of applications including medical diagnostics, tissue engineering, and drug screening and delivery. Accordingly, the authors begin with an overview of single nanoparticle analytics highlighting two emerging techniques and how they compare with existing techniques. The first is based on single particle tracking of nanoparticles tethered to a mobile supported lipid bilayer, enabling the simultaneous characterization of both size and composition of individual nanoparticles. The second technique is based on probing variations in the ionic conduction across nanoscale apertures for detection of not only nanoparticles but also membrane-tethered proteins, thereby allowing a multiparameter characterization of individual nanoscopic objects, addressing their size, shape, charge, and dipole moment. Subsequently, the authors lead into an example of an area of application that stands to benefit from such advances in bioanalytics, namely, the development of biomimetic lipid- and polymer-based assemblies as stimuli-responsive artificial organelles and nanocarriers designed to optimize delivery of next generation high-molecular-weight biological drugs. This in turn motivates the need for additional advanced techniques for investigating the cellular response to drug delivery, and so the review returns again to bioanalytics, in this case single-cell analysis, while highlighting a technique capable of probing and manipulating the content of individual living cells via fluidic force microscopy. In presenting a concerted movement in the field of bioinspired bioanalytics, positioned in the context of drug delivery, while also noting the critical role of surface modifications, it is the authors' aim to evaluate progress in the field of single component bioanalytics and to emphasize the impact of initiating and maintaining a fruitful dialogue among scientists, together with clinicians and industry, to guide future directions in this area and to steer innovation to successful translation.

Single-Cell Mass Spectrometry of Metabolites Extracted from Live Cells by Fluidic Force Microscopy.

Single-cell metabolite analysis provides valuable information on cellular function and response to external stimuli. While recent advances in mass spectrometry reached the sensitivity required to investigate metabolites in single cells, current methods commonly isolate and sacrifice cells, inflicting a perturbed state and preventing complementary analyses. Here, we propose a two-step approach that combines nondestructive and quantitative withdrawal of intracellular fluid with subpicoliter resolution using fluidic force microscopy, followed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The developed method enabled the detection and identification of 20 metabolites recovered from the cytoplasm of individual HeLa cells. The approach was further validated in 13C-glucose feeding experiments, which showed incorporation of labeled carbon atoms into different metabolites. Metabolite sampling, followed by mass spectrometry measurements, enabled the preservation of the physiological context and the viability of the analyzed cell, providing opportunities for complementary analyses of the cell before, during, and after metabolite analysis.

Tunable Single-Cell Extraction for Molecular Analyses.

Because of cellular heterogeneity, the analysis of endogenous molecules from single cells is of significant interest and has major implications. While micromanipulation or cell sorting followed by cell lysis is already used for subsequent molecular examinations, approaches to directly extract the content of living cells remain a challenging but promising alternative to achieving non-destructive sampling and cell-context preservation. Here, we demonstrate the quantitative extraction from single cells with spatiotemporal control using fluidic force microscopy. We further present a comprehensive analysis of the soluble molecules withdrawn from the cytoplasm or the nucleus, including the detection of enzyme activities and transcript abundances. This approach has uncovered the ability of cells to withstand extraction of up to several picoliters and opens opportunities to study cellular dynamics and cell-cell communication under physiological conditions at the single-cell level.

Controlled single-cell deposition and patterning by highly flexible hollow cantilevers.

Single-cell patterning represents a key approach to decouple and better understand the role and mechanisms of individual cells of a given population. In particular, the bottom-up approach of engineering neuronal circuits with a controlled topology holds immense promises to perceive the relationships between connectivity and function. In order to accommodate these efforts, highly flexible SU-8 cantilevers with integrated microchannels have been fabricated for both additive and subtractive patterning. By directly squeezing out single cells onto adhesive surfaces, controlled deposition with a spatial accuracy of 5 µm could be achieved, while subtractive patterning has been realized by selective removal of targeted single cells. Complex cell patterns were created on substrates pre-patterned with cell-adhesive and repulsive areas, preserving the original pattern geometry for long-term studies. For example, a circular loop with a diameter of 530 µm has been realized using primary hippocampal neurons, which were fully connected to their respective neighbors along the loop. Using the same cantilevers, the versatility of the technique has also been demonstrated via in situ modification of already mature neuronal cultures by both detaching individual cells of the population and adding fresh ones, incorporating them into the culture.

Force-controlled manipulation of single cells: from AFM to FluidFM.

The ability to perturb individual cells and to obtain information at the single-cell level is of central importance for addressing numerous biological questions. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) offers great potential for this prospering field. Traditionally used as an imaging tool, more recent developments have extended the variety of cell-manipulation protocols. Fluidic force microscopy (FluidFM) combines AFM with microfluidics via microchanneled cantilevers with nano-sized apertures. The crucial element of the technology is the connection of the hollow cantilevers to a pressure controller, allowing their operation in liquid as force-controlled nanopipettes under optical control. Proof-of-concept studies demonstrated a broad spectrum of single-cell applications including isolation, deposition, adhesion and injection in a range of biological systems.

Isolation of single mammalian cells from adherent cultures by fluidic force microscopy.

The physical separation of individual cells from cell populations for single-cell analysis and proliferation is of wide interest in biology and medicine. Today, single-cell isolation is routinely applied to non-adherent cells, though its application to cells grown on a substrate remains challenging. In this report, a versatile approach for isolating single HeLa cells directly from their culture dish is presented. Fluidic force microscopy is first used to detach the targeted cell(s) via the tunable delivery of trypsin, thereby achieving cellular detachment with single-cell resolution. The cell is then trapped by the microfluidic probe via gentle aspiration, displaced with micrometric precision and either transferred onto a new substrate or deposited into a microwell. An optimised non-fouling coating ensures fully reversible cell capture and the potential for serial isolation of multiple cells with 100% successful transfer rate (n = 130) and a survival rate of greater than 95%. By providing an efficient means for isolating targeted adherent cells, the described approach offers exciting possibilities for biomedical research.

Ion-induced cell sheet detachment from standard cell culture surfaces coated with polyelectrolytes.

Polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEMs), formed by alternating layer-by-layer deposition of polyanions and polycations, are an ideal substrate for controlling cellular adhesion and behavior. In the present study we propose a simple mechanism for the controlled detachment of C(2)C(12) myoblasts cell sheets from PEMs consisting of poly(l-lysine) and hyaluronic acid with a topmost layer of fibronectin. The multilayers were deposited on two standard cell culture surfaces: glass and polystyrene. Adding a low concentration of nontoxic ferrocyanide to the cell culture medium resulted in erosion of the polyelectrolyte multilayer and rapid detachment of viable cell sheets. Additional Quartz Crystal Microbalance and Atomic Force Microscopy measurements indicated that the detached cells retained their extracellular matrix and that no polyelectrolyte molecules remained bound to the cell sheets. The dissolution of polyelectrolyte multilayers by multivalent ions is a promising approach to cell sheet engineering that could potentially be used for regenerative medicine.

Rapid and serial quantification of adhesion forces of yeast and Mammalian cells.

Cell adhesion to surfaces represents the basis for niche colonization and survival. Here we establish serial quantification of adhesion forces of different cell types using a single probe. The pace of single-cell force-spectroscopy was accelerated to up to 200 yeast and 20 mammalian cells per probe when replacing the conventional cell trapping cantilever chemistry of atomic force microscopy by underpressure immobilization with fluidic force microscopy (FluidFM). In consequence, statistically relevant data could be recorded in a rapid manner, the spectrum of examinable cells was enlarged, and the cell physiology preserved until approached for force spectroscopy. Adhesion forces of Candida albicans increased from below 4 up to 16 nN at 37°C on hydrophobic surfaces, whereas a Δhgc1-mutant showed forces consistently below 4 nN. Monitoring adhesion of mammalian cells revealed mean adhesion forces of 600 nN of HeLa cells on fibronectin and were one order of magnitude higher than those observed for HEK cells.

pH-controlled recovery of placenta-derived mesenchymal stem cell sheets.

Widely used in different biomedical applications, polyelectrolyte multilayers provide inter alia an attractive way for manufacturing of bio-functionalized, stimuli responsive surface coatings to control cellular behavior. In this study a novel polyelectrolyte-based platform for the engineering and controllable detachment of human mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) sheets is presented. Thin films obtained by layer-by-layer deposition of cationic poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) and anionic poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS) polyelectrolytes on conductive indium tin oxide (ITO) electrodes allowed for the fast formation of viable sheets from human placenta-derived mesenchymal stem cells (PD-MSCs). Resulting stem cell sheets retained their phenotypical profile and mesodermal differentiation potency. Both electrochemically-induced local pH lowering and global decrease of the environmental pH allowed for a rapid detachment of intact stem cell sheets. The recovered stem cell sheets remained viable and maintained their capacity to differentiate toward the adipogenic and osteogenic lineages. This novel polyelectrolyte multilayer based platform represents a promising, novel approach for the engineering of human stem cell sheets desired for future clinical applications.

Electrochemically switchable platform for the micro-patterning and release of heterotypic cell sheets.

This article describes a dynamic platform in which the biointerfacial properties of micro-patterned domains can be switched electrochemically through the spatio-temporally controlled dissolution and adsorption of polyelectrolyte coatings. Insulating SU-8 micro-patterns created on a transparent indium tin oxide electrode by photolithography allowed for the local control over the electrochemical dissolution of polyelectrolyte mono- and multilayers, with polyelectrolytes shielded from the electrochemical treatment by the underlying photoresist stencil. The platform allowed for the creation of micro-patterned cell co-cultures through the electrochemical removal of a non-fouling polyelectrolyte coating and the localized adsorption of a cell adhesive one after attachment of the first cell population. In addition, the use of weak adhesive polyelectrolyte coatings on the photoresist domains allowed for the detachment of a contiguous heterotypic cell sheet upon electrochemical trigger. Cells grown on the ITO domains peeled off upon electrochemical dissolution of the sacrificial polyelectrolyte substrate, whereas adjacent cell areas on the insulated weakly adhesive substrate easily detached through the contractile force generated by neighboring cells. This electrochemical strategy for the micro-patterning and detachment of heterotypic cell sheets combines simplicity, precision and versatility, and presents great prospects for the creation of cellular constructs which mimic the cellular complexity of native tissues.

Chemically tunable electrochemical dissolution of noncontinuous polyelectrolyte assemblies: an in situ study using ecAFM.

The electrochemically triggered dissolution of noncontinuous polyelectrolyte assemblies presenting distinct nanomorphologies and its tuning by chemical cross-linking were monitored locally, in situ, by electrochemical atomic force microscopy. Poly-l-lysine and hyaluronic acid deposited layer-by-layer on indium tin oxide electrodes at specific experimental conditions formed well-defined nanostructures whose morphologies could be easily and precisely followed along the dissolution process. In addition to shrinkage of polyelectrolyte nanodroplets, ecAFM images revealed the faster dissolution of coalesced structures compared to droplet-like complexes, and the readsorption of dissolved polyelectrolytes onto slower dissolving neighboring structures. Covalently cross-linked PLL/HA assemblies dissolved only partially, and exhibited slower dissolution rates compared to native multilayers, with a clear dependence on the cross-link density. Tuning the electrochemical dissolution of polyelectrolyte multilayers through chemical cross-linking opens new prospects for future biomedical applications, such as the development of advanced drug or gene delivery platforms allowing for tightly controlled releases of different compounds at specific rates.

Zirconium ion mediated formation of liposome multilayers.

Phospholipid vesicles have attracted considerable interest as a platform for a variety of biomolecular binding assays, especially in the area of membrane protein sensing. The development of liposome-based biosensors widely relies on the availability of simple and efficient protocols for their surface immobilization. We present a novel approach toward the creation of three-dimensional phospholipid vesicle constructs using multivalent zirconium ions as linkers between the liposomes. Such three-dimensional sensing platforms are likely to play a key role in the development of biosensing devices with increased loading capacity and sensitivity. After demonstrating the affinity of Zr(4+) toward the phospholipids, we formed vesicle multilayers by sequential injections of solutions containing either liposomes or ZrOCl(2). In situ adlayer characterization was carried out by optical waveguide lightmode spectroscopy (OWLS) and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D) measurements while imaging was performed by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and fluorescence microscopy. Multilayers were successfully constructed, and as demonstrated in a model fluorescence-based biomolecular binding assay, the sensor's loading capacity was increased. Furthermore, we observed that lipid exchange between the vesicles is promoted in the presence of Zr(4+) and that addition of a phosphate-containing buffer leads to adlayer loosening and creation of lipidic tubular structures. The approach presented here could be applied to the study of membrane proteins in a highly sensitive manner due to the increased surface area or to produce functional coatings for controlled drug release and host response.