Accelerated drug-resistant variant discovery with an enhanced, scalable mutagenic base editor platform.

Personalized cancer therapeutics bring directed treatment options to patients based on their tumor's genetic signature. Unfortunately, tumor genomes are remarkably adaptable, and acquired resistance through gene mutation frequently occurs. Identifying mutations that promote resistance within drug-treated patient populations can be cost, resource, and time intensive. Accordingly, base editing, enabled by Cas9-deaminase domain fusions, has emerged as a promising approach for rapid, large-scale gene variant screening in situ. Here, we adapt and optimize a conditional activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID)-dead Cas9 (dCas9) system, which demonstrates greater heterogeneity of edits with an expanded footprint compared to the most commonly utilized cytosine base editor, BE4. In combination with a custom single guide RNA (sgRNA) library, we identify individual and compound variants in epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and v-raf murine sarcoma viral oncogene homolog B1 (BRAF) that confer resistance to established EGFR inhibitors. This system and analytical pipeline provide a simple, highly scalable platform for cis or trans drug-modifying variant discovery and for uncovering valuable insights into protein structure-function relationships.

Nucleotide modifications enable rational design of TLR7-selective ligands by blocking RNase cleavage.

Toll-like receptors 7 (TLR7) and 8 (TLR8) each sense single-stranded RNA (ssRNA), but their activation results in different immune activation profiles. Attempts to selectively target either TLR7 or TLR8 have been hindered by their high degree of homology. However, recent studies revealed that TLR7 and TLR8 bind different ligands resulting from the processing of ssRNA by endolysosomal RNases. We demonstrate that by introducing precise 2' sugar-modified bases into oligoribonucleotides (ORNs) containing known TLR7 and TLR8 binding motifs, we could prevent RNase-mediated degradation into the monomeric uridine required for TLR8 activation while preserving TLR7 activation. Furthermore, a novel, optimized protocol for CRISPR-Cas9 knockout in primary human plasmacytoid dendritic cells showed that TLR7 activation is dependent on RNase processing of ORNs and revealed a previously undescribed role for RNase 6 in degrading ORNs into TLR ligands. Finally, 2' sugar-modified ORNs demonstrated robust innate immune activation in mice. Altogether, we identified a strategy for creating tunable TLR7-selective agonists.

Argonaute3-SF3B3 complex controls pre-mRNA splicing to restrain type 2 immunity.

Argonaute (AGO) proteins execute microRNA (miRNA)-mediated gene silencing. However, it is unclear whether all 4 mammalian AGO proteins (AGO1, AGO2, AGO3, and AGO4) are required for miRNA activity. We generate Ago1, Ago3, and Ago4-deficient mice (Ago134Δ) and find AGO1/3/4 to be redundant for miRNA biogenesis, homeostasis, or function, a role that is carried out by AGO2. Instead, AGO1/3/4 regulate the expansion of type 2 immunity via precursor mRNA splicing in CD4+ T helper (Th) lymphocytes. Gain- and loss-of-function experiments demonstrate that nuclear AGO3 interacts directly with SF3B3, a component of the U2 spliceosome complex, to aid global mRNA splicing, and in particular the isoforms of the gene Nisch, resulting in a dysregulated Nisch isoform ratio. This work uncouples AGO1, AGO3, and AGO4 from miRNA-mediated RNA interference, identifies an AGO3:SF3B3 complex in the nucleus, and reveals a mechanism by which AGO proteins regulate inflammatory diseases.

Systematic discovery of neoepitope-HLA pairs for neoantigens shared among patients and tumor types.

The broad application of precision cancer immunotherapies is limited by the number of validated neoepitopes that are common among patients or tumor types. To expand the known repertoire of shared neoantigen-human leukocyte antigen (HLA) complexes, we developed a high-throughput platform that coupled an in vitro peptide-HLA binding assay with engineered cellular models expressing individual HLA alleles in combination with a concatenated transgene harboring 47 common cancer neoantigens. From more than 24,000 possible neoepitope-HLA combinations, biochemical and computational assessment yielded 844 unique candidates, of which 86 were verified after immunoprecipitation mass spectrometry analyses of engineered, monoallelic cell lines. To evaluate the potential for immunogenicity, we identified T cell receptors that recognized select neoepitope-HLA pairs and elicited a response after introduction into human T cells. These cellular systems and our data on therapeutically relevant neoepitopes in their HLA contexts will aid researchers studying antigen processing as well as neoepitope targeting therapies.

In situ tumour arrays reveal early environmental control of cancer immunity.

The immune phenotype of a tumour is a key predictor of its response to immunotherapy1-4. Patients who respond to checkpoint blockade generally present with immune-inflamed5-7 tumours that are highly infiltrated by T cells. However, not all inflamed tumours respond to therapy, and even lower response rates occur among tumours that lack T cells (immune desert) or that spatially exclude T cells to the periphery of the tumour lesion (immune excluded)8. Despite the importance of these tumour immune phenotypes in patients, little is known about their development, heterogeneity or dynamics owing to the technical difficulty of tracking these features in situ. Here we introduce skin tumour array by microporation (STAMP)-a preclinical approach that combines high-throughput time-lapse imaging with next-generation sequencing of tumour arrays. Using STAMP, we followed the development of thousands of arrayed tumours in vivo to show that tumour immune phenotypes and outcomes vary between adjacent tumours and are controlled by local factors within the tumour microenvironment. Particularly, the recruitment of T cells by fibroblasts and monocytes into the tumour core was supportive of T cell cytotoxic activity and tumour rejection. Tumour immune phenotypes were dynamic over time and an early conversion to an immune-inflamed phenotype was predictive of spontaneous or therapy-induced tumour rejection. Thus, STAMP captures the dynamic relationships of the spatial, cellular and molecular components of tumour rejection and has the potential to translate therapeutic concepts into successful clinical strategies.

Optimized Nonviral Gene Disruption in Primary Murine and Human Myeloid Cells.

Genetically engineered myeloid cells such as monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells have broad applications in basic and translational research. Their central roles in innate and adaptive immunity make them attractive as putative therapeutic cell products. However, efficient gene editing of primary myeloid cells presents unique challenges owing to their sensitivity to foreign nucleic acids and poor editing efficiencies using current methodologies (Hornung et al., Science 314:994-997, 2006; Coch et al., PLoS One 8:e71057, 2013; Bartok and Hartmann, Immunity 53:54-77, 2020; Hartmann, Adv Immunol 133:121-169, 2017; Bobadilla et al., Gene Ther 20:514-520, 2013; Schlee and Hartmann, Nat Rev Immunol 16:566-580, 2016; Leyva et al., BMC Biotechnol 11:13, 2011). This chapter describes nonviral CRISPR-mediated gene knockout in primary human and murine monocytes as well as monocyte-derived or bone marrow-derived macrophages and dendritic cells. Electroporation-mediated delivery of recombinant Cas9 complexed with synthetic guide RNAs can be applied for population-level disruption of single or multiple gene targets.

A versatile, high-efficiency platform for CRISPR-based gene activation.

CRISPR-mediated transcriptional activation (CRISPRa) is a powerful technology for inducing gene expression from endogenous loci with exciting applications in high throughput gain-of-function genomic screens and the engineering of cell-based models. However, current strategies for generating potent, stable, CRISPRa-competent cell lines present limitations for the broad utility of this approach. Here, we provide a high-efficiency, self-selecting CRISPRa enrichment strategy, which combined with piggyBac transposon technology enables rapid production of CRISPRa-ready cell populations compatible with a variety of downstream assays. We complement this with an optimized guide RNA scaffold that significantly enhances CRISPRa functionality. Finally, we describe a synthetic guide RNA tool set that enables transient, population-wide gene activation when used with the self-selecting CRISPRa system. Taken together, this versatile platform greatly enhances the potential for CRISPRa across a wide variety of cellular contexts.

TEAD Proteins Associate With DNA Repair Proteins to Facilitate Cellular Recovery From DNA Damage.

Transcriptional enhanced associate domain family members 1 to 4 (TEADs) are a family of four transcription factors and the major transcriptional effectors of the Hippo pathway. In order to activate transcription, TEADs rely on interactions with other proteins, such as the transcriptional effectors Yes-associated protein and transcriptional co-activator with PDZ-binding motif. Nuclear protein interactions involving TEADs influence the transcriptional regulation of genes involved in cell growth, tissue homeostasis, and tumorigenesis. Clearly, protein interactions for TEADs are functionally important, but the full repertoire of TEAD interaction partners remains unknown. Here, we employed an affinity purification mass spectrometry approach to identify nuclear interacting partners of TEADs. We performed affinity purification mass spectrometry experiment in parallel in two different cell types and compared a wildtype TEAD bait protein to a nuclear localization sequence mutant that does not localize to the nucleus. We quantified the results using SAINT analysis and found a significant enrichment of proteins linked to DNA damage including X-ray repair cross-complementing protein 5 (XRCC5), X-ray repair cross-complementing protein 6 (XRCC6), poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1), and Rap1-interacting factor 1 (RIF1). In cellular assays, we found that TEADs co-localize with DNA damage-induced nuclear foci marked by histone H2AX phosphorylated on S139 (γH2AX) and Rap1-interacting factor 1. We also found that depletion of TEAD proteins makes cells more susceptible to DNA damage by various agents and that depletion of TEADs promotes genomic instability. Additionally, depleting TEADs dampens the efficiency of DNA double-stranded break repair in reporter assays. Our results connect TEADs to DNA damage response processes, positioning DNA damage as an important avenue for further research of TEAD proteins.

Population-wide gene disruption in the murine lung epithelium via AAV-mediated delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 components.

With the aim of expediting drug target discovery and validation for respiratory diseases, we developed an optimized method for in situ somatic gene disruption in murine lung epithelial cells via AAV6-mediated CRISPR-Cas9 delivery. Efficient gene editing was observed in lung type II alveolar epithelial cells and distal airway cells following assessment of single- or dual-guide AAV vector formats, Cas9 variants, and a sequential dosing strategy with combinatorial guide RNA expression cassettes. In particular, we were able to demonstrate population-wide gene disruption within distinct epithelial cell types for separate targets in Cas9 transgenic animals, with minimal to no associated inflammation. We also observed and characterized AAV vector integration events that occurred within directed double-stranded DNA break sites in lung cells, highlighting a complicating factor with AAV-mediated delivery of DNA nucleases. Taken together, we demonstrate a uniquely effective approach for somatic engineering of the murine lung, which will greatly facilitate the modeling of disease and therapeutic intervention.

Findings from international archived data: Fractionation reduces mortality risk of ionizing radiation for total doses below 4 Gray in rodents.

Ionizing radiation is omnipresent and unavoidable on Earth; nevertheless, the range of doses and modes of radiation delivery that represent health risks remain controversial. Radiation protection policy for civilians in US is set at 1 mSv per year. Average persons from contemporary populations are exposed to several hundred milliSieverts (mSv) over their lifetimes from both natural and human made sources such as radon, cosmic rays, CT-scans (20-50 mSv partial body exposure per scan), etc. Health risks associated with these and larger exposures are focus of many epidemiological studies, but uncertainties of these estimates coupled with individual and environmental variation make it is prudent to attempt to use animal models and tightly controlled experimental conditions to supplement our evaluation of radiation risk question. Data on 11,528 of rodents of both genders exposed to x-ray or gamma-ray radiation in facilities in US and Europe were used for this analysis; animal mortality data argue that fractionated radiation exposures have about 2 fold less risk per Gray than acute radiation exposures in the range of doses between 0.25 and 4 Gy.

Plasmid-Based Donor Templates for Nonviral CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Gene Knock-In in Human T Cells.

Effective and precise gene editing of T lymphocytes is critical for advancing the understanding of T cell biology and the development of next-generation cellular therapies. Although methods for effective CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene knock-out in primary human T cells have been developed, complementary techniques for nonviral gene knock-in can be cumbersome and inefficient. Here, we report a simple and efficient method for nonviral CRISPR/Cas9-based gene knock-in utilizing plasmid-based donor DNA templates. © 2022 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Purification of human CD4+ or CD8+ T cells from blood Basic Protocol 2: Activation of purified CD4+ or CD8+ T cells using TransAct CD3/CD28 agonist-conjugated nanomatrix Basic Protocol 3: Preparation of Cas9/sgRNA RNPs Basic Protocol 4: Transfection of CAS9-RNP and knock-in template into human T cells Support Protocol 1: Purity check following magnetic T cell isolation Support Protocol 2: Dextramer staining of TCR-edited T cells Support Protocol 3: Functional characterization of TCR knock-in T cells Support Protocol 4: Detection of knock-in reporter activity in CRISPR/CAS9-edited T cells.

EHMT2 methyltransferase governs cell identity in the lung and is required for KRAS G12D tumor development and propagation.

Lung development, integrity and repair rely on precise Wnt signaling, which is corrupted in diverse diseases, including cancer. Here, we discover that EHMT2 methyltransferase regulates Wnt signaling in the lung by controlling the transcriptional activity of chromatin-bound ß-catenin, through a non-histone substrate in mouse lung. Inhibition of EHMT2 induces transcriptional, morphologic, and molecular changes consistent with alveolar type 2 (AT2) lineage commitment. Mechanistically, EHMT2 activity functions to support regenerative properties of KrasG12D tumors and normal AT2 cells-the predominant cell of origin of this cancer. Consequently, EHMT2 inhibition prevents KrasG12D lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) tumor formation and propagation and disrupts normal AT2 cell differentiation. Consistent with these findings, low gene EHMT2 expression in human LUAD correlates with enhanced AT2 gene expression and improved prognosis. These data reveal EHMT2 as a critical regulator of Wnt signaling, implicating Ehmt2 as a potential target in lung cancer and other AT2-mediated lung pathologies.

Generation of a CRISPR activation mouse that enables modelling of aggressive lymphoma and interrogation of venetoclax resistance.

CRISPR technologies have advanced cancer modelling in mice, but CRISPR activation (CRISPRa) methods have not been exploited in this context. We establish a CRISPRa mouse (dCas9a-SAMKI) for inducing gene expression in vivo and in vitro. Using dCas9a-SAMKI primary lymphocytes, we induce B cell restricted genes in T cells and vice versa, demonstrating the power of this system. There are limited models of aggressive double hit lymphoma. Therefore, we transactivate pro-survival BCL-2 in Eµ-MycT/+;dCas9a-SAMKI/+ haematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. Mice transplanted with these cells rapidly develop lymphomas expressing high BCL-2 and MYC. Unlike standard Eµ-Myc lymphomas, BCL-2 expressing lymphomas are highly sensitive to the BCL-2 inhibitor venetoclax. We perform genome-wide activation screens in these lymphoma cells and find a dominant role for the BCL-2 protein A1 in venetoclax resistance. Here we show the potential of our CRISPRa model for mimicking disease and providing insights into resistance mechanisms towards targeted therapies.

High-efficiency nonviral CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing of human T cells using plasmid donor DNA.

Genome engineering of T lymphocytes, the main effectors of antitumor adaptive immune responses, has the potential to uncover unique insights into their functions and enable the development of next-generation adoptive T cell therapies. Viral gene delivery into T cells, which is currently used to generate CAR T cells, has limitations in regard to targeting precision, cargo flexibility, and reagent production. Nonviral methods for effective CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene knock-out in primary human T cells have been developed, but complementary techniques for nonviral gene knock-in can be cumbersome and inefficient. Here, we report a convenient and scalable nonviral method that allows precise gene edits and transgene integration in primary human T cells, using plasmid donor DNA template and Cas9-RNP. This method is highly efficient for single and multiplex gene manipulation, without compromising T cell function, and is thus valuable for use in basic and translational research.

Distinct resistance mechanisms arise to allosteric vs. ATP-competitive AKT inhibitors.

The AKT kinases have emerged as promising therapeutic targets in oncology and both allosteric and ATP-competitive AKT inhibitors have entered clinical investigation. However, long-term efficacy of such inhibitors will likely be challenged by the development of resistance. We have established prostate cancer models of acquired resistance to the allosteric inhibitor MK-2206 or the ATP-competitive inhibitor ipatasertib following prolonged exposure. While alterations in AKT are associated with acquired resistance to MK-2206, ipatasertib resistance is driven by rewired compensatory activity of parallel signaling pathways. Importantly, MK-2206 resistance can be overcome by treatment with ipatasertib, while ipatasertib resistance can be reversed by co-treatment with inhibitors of pathways including PIM signaling. These findings demonstrate that distinct resistance mechanisms arise to the two classes of AKT inhibitors and that combination approaches may reverse resistance to ATP-competitive inhibition.

IL-1 and IL-1ra are key regulators of the inflammatory response to RNA vaccines.

The use of lipid-formulated RNA vaccines for cancer or COVID-19 is associated with dose-limiting systemic inflammatory responses in humans that were not predicted from preclinical studies. Here, we show that the 'interleukin 1 (IL-1)-interleukin 1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra)' axis regulates vaccine-mediated systemic inflammation in a host-specific manner. In human immune cells, RNA vaccines induce production of IL-1 cytokines, predominantly IL-1ß, which is dependent on both the RNA and lipid formulation. IL-1 in turn triggers the induction of the broad spectrum of pro-inflammatory cytokines (including IL-6). Unlike humans, murine leukocytes respond to RNA vaccines by upregulating anti-inflammatory IL-1ra relative to IL-1 (predominantly IL-1α), protecting mice from cytokine-mediated toxicities at >1,000-fold higher vaccine doses. Thus, the IL-1 pathway plays a key role in triggering RNA vaccine-associated innate signaling, an effect that was unexpectedly amplified by certain lipids used in vaccine formulations incorporating N1-methyl-pseudouridine-modified RNA to reduce activation of Toll-like receptor signaling.

CRAF dimerization with ARAF regulates KRAS-driven tumor growth.

KRAS, which is mutated in ∼30% of all cancers, activates the RAF-MEK-ERK signaling cascade. CRAF is required for growth of KRAS mutant lung tumors, but the requirement for CRAF kinase activity is unknown. Here, we show that subsets of KRAS mutant tumors are dependent on CRAF for growth. Kinase-dead but not dimer-defective CRAF rescues growth inhibition, suggesting that dimerization but not kinase activity is required. Quantitative proteomics demonstrates increased levels of CRAF:ARAF dimers in KRAS mutant cells, and depletion of both CRAF and ARAF rescues the CRAF-loss phenotype. Mechanistically, CRAF depletion causes sustained ERK activation and induction of cell-cycle arrest, while treatment with low-dose MEK or ERK inhibitor rescues the CRAF-loss phenotype. Our studies highlight the role of CRAF in regulating MAPK signal intensity to promote tumorigenesis downstream of mutant KRAS and suggest that disrupting CRAF dimerization or degrading CRAF may have therapeutic benefit.

Identifying transcriptional programs underlying cancer drug response with TraCe-seq.

Genetic and non-genetic heterogeneity within cancer cell populations represent major challenges to anticancer therapies. We currently lack robust methods to determine how preexisting and adaptive features affect cellular responses to therapies. Here, by conducting clonal fitness mapping and transcriptional characterization using expressed barcodes and single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), we have developed tracking differential clonal response by scRNA-seq (TraCe-seq). TraCe-seq is a method that captures at clonal resolution the origin, fate and differential early adaptive transcriptional programs of cells in a complex population in response to distinct treatments. We used TraCe-seq to benchmark how next-generation dual epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitor-degraders compare to standard EGFR kinase inhibitors in EGFR-mutant lung cancer cells. We identified a loss of antigrowth activity associated with targeted degradation of EGFR protein and an essential role of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) protein processing pathway in anti-EGFR therapeutic efficacy. Our results suggest that targeted degradation is not always superior to enzymatic inhibition and establish TraCe-seq as an approach to study how preexisting transcriptional programs affect treatment responses.

Shigella ubiquitin ligase IpaH7.8 targets gasdermin D for degradation to prevent pyroptosis and enable infection.

The pore-forming protein gasdermin D (GSDMD) executes lytic cell death called pyroptosis to eliminate the replicative niche of intracellular pathogens. Evolution favors pathogens that circumvent this host defense mechanism. Here, we show that the Shigella ubiquitin ligase IpaH7.8 functions as an inhibitor of GSDMD. Shigella is an enteroinvasive bacterium that causes hemorrhagic gastroenteritis in primates, but not rodents. IpaH7.8 contributes to species specificity by ubiquitinating human, but not mouse, GSDMD and targeting it for proteasomal degradation. Accordingly, infection of human epithelial cells with IpaH7.8-deficient Shigella flexneri results in increased GSDMD-dependent cell death compared with wild type. Consistent with pyroptosis contributing to murine disease resistance, eliminating GSDMD from NLRC4-deficient mice, which are already sensitized to oral infection with Shigella flexneri, leads to further enhanced bacterial replication and increased disease severity. This work highlights a species-specific pathogen arms race focused on maintenance of host cell viability.