Exploring the Underlying Constructs of Rape-Related Cognition Scales and Their Relationships With Sexual Aggression.

Rape-related cognitions (typically defined as encompassing any number of cognitive constructs) are thought to play a role in sexual aggression. However, rape-related cognition scales often assess these cognitive constructs as one. The purpose of this study is to explore the factor structure of these measures using a sample of 191 community men. We found that items from the Rape Myth Acceptance, RAPE, and Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance (IRMA) scales formed one factor, which was significantly related to sexual aggression. We further found that four and six IRMA subscales were significantly related to past and likelihood of sexual aggression, respectively. Additionally, one IRMA subscale was independently related to past and likelihood of sexual aggression. The results are discussed in terms of implications and direction for future research.

Evaluative Attitudes May Explain the Link Between Injunctive Norms and Sexual Aggression.

The current study examined the extent to which evaluative attitudes toward sexual aggression (i.e., positive or negative evaluative judgments about sexually aggressive behavior) mediate the association between injunctive norms (i.e., extent to which peers approve or disapprove of sexually aggressive behavior) and self-reported sexual aggression against women. Participants were 200 male undergraduate students. Approximately one in four males reported engaging in at least one sexually aggressive act since the age of 16. Participants with a history of sexual aggression also reported the highest likelihood of engaging in sexually aggressive behavior in the future. We tested two separate mediation models to examine the extent to which evaluative attitudes account for the link between injunctive norms and sexual aggression: one model with self-reported history of sexual aggression as the outcome and the other with likelihood of engaging in sexually aggressive behavior as the outcome. Results showed that more positive evaluative attitudes toward sexual aggression accounted for the association between injunctive norms and self-reported history of sexual aggression. Similarly, evaluative attitudes accounted for the link between injunctive norms and self-reported likelihood of engaging in sexually aggressive behavior in the future. Overall, these findings are consistent with theoretical and empirical explanations of sexual offending and general criminal behavior; however, this is the first study to explore the relationship between injunctive norms and evaluative attitudes in the context of explaining sexually aggressive behavior. If more rigorous research establishes a causal relationship between injunctive norms, evaluative attitudes, and sexually aggressive behavior, this would suggest that targeting these factors in prevention programs may reduce sexual aggression by male undergraduate students.

How well do indirect measures assess sexual interest in children? A meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE: We quantitatively reviewed the construct validity evidence for all cognitively based indirect measures of sexual interest in prepubescent children (pedophilic interest) and pubescent children (hebephilic interest) using meta-analysis. METHOD: Studies were included if they presented scores on a cognitively based indirect measure of pedohebephilic interest for a sample of adolescent or adult males who had committed a sexual offense against a child 16 years of age or younger, or who reported sexual interest in children, and for a comparison group. Studies were also included if they reported on the strength of association between scores on an indirect measure and an independent indicator of pedohebephilic interest in a sample of males. We used meta-analysis with robust variance estimation to summarize effect sizes and metaregression to test potential moderators. RESULTS: Cognitively based indirect measures of pedohebephilic interest showed a moderate difference between pedohebephilic (n = 2,552) and nonpedohebephilic males (n = 2,434), d = 0.61, 95% CI [0.46, 0.76], k = 39. A small-to-moderate correlation was also observed between indirect measures and independent indicators of pedohebephilic interest, r = .23, 95% CI [0.17, 0.28], k = 23, n = 3,623. These effects were qualified by substantial heterogeneity; however, most moderators we tested did not account for a significant amount of heterogeneity. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that publication bias did not substantially distort the results. However, the lack of significant moderators suggests more research is needed to understand the conditions under which indirect measures best reflect pedohebephilic interest. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Disentangling Cognitions About Sexual Aggression.

We examined the extent to which evaluative attitudes toward sexual aggression are distinct from other cognitions regarding sexually aggressive behavior. Evaluative attitudes toward sexual aggression refer to the extent to which sexual aggression is viewed negatively or positively. In a secondary analysis of online survey data from 495 community men, exploratory factor analysis revealed that items from a measure of evaluative attitudes formed a distinct factor from items designed to measure cognitive distortions regarding rape. These findings suggest that evaluative attitudes may be distinct from cognitive distortions. Furthermore, hierarchical regression analyses indicated that evaluative attitudes explained unique variance in self-reported past sexual aggression, proclivity for sexually aggressive behavior, and likelihood to rape. If future research finds support for a causal relationship between evaluative attitudes and sexual aggression, well-established evaluative-attitude-change procedures from the social psychological literature could be adapted to address evaluative attitudes toward sexual aggression in interventions aimed at reducing sexually aggressive behavior.

The Violent Behavior Vignette Questionnaire (VBVQ): A Measure of Violent Behavior for Research in Forensic and Non-Forensic Settings and Populations.

The measurement of violent behavior presents serious challenges for research on violence. In the current article, we present initial tests of the construct validity of scores on the Violent Behavior Vignette Questionnaire (VBVQ), which consists of a series of interpersonal conflict vignettes with response options in a multiple-choice format designed to measure current violent behavior. Violent responses on the initial version of the VBVQ generally corresponded to independent indicators of physical aggressiveness and violent behavior among male university students, men in the community, and incarcerated male offenders. We then refined the VBVQ and again tested the validity of its scores in new samples of men in the community and incarcerated male offenders. In both samples, men who selected a violent response option on the VBVQ generally had much higher levels of physical aggressiveness and violent behavior than did men who selected non-violent response options. However, VBVQ responses were not associated with the number of violent offenses in offenders' official criminal records. Our findings provide some support for the use of the VBVQ in lab and correctional/forensic research, but further research is required to determine whether it offers advantages over other measures.

Validity in Phallometric Testing for Sexual Interests in Children: A Meta-Analytic Review.

Valid assessment of pedohebephilic interests (i.e., sexual interest in children) is fundamental to forensic clinical practice. Phallometric testing-which measures changes in penile circumference or volume, while stimuli depicting different ages and sexual activities are presented-is widely used in clinical and research settings to detect such interests. This meta-analysis summarizes studies comparing sexual offenders against children and various types of controls on phallometric tests for pedohebephilic interests (37 samples; N = 6,785) and studies examining the relationship between phallometric test scores and sexual reoffending (16 samples; N = 2,709). The findings suggest that several phallometric testing procedures are valid indicators of pedohebephilic interest. Certain methodological features of phallometric tests were associated with greater validity, such as, slide or audio-plus-slide stimuli and z-score-based indices. In addition, phallometric tests for pedohebephilic, pedophilic, and hebephilic interests predicted sexual reoffending which provides further evidence that phallometric test scores are valid indicators of sexual interest in children. In general, the interpretation of phallometric test scores as indicators of pedohebephilic interests is supported.

Emotional Congruence with Children: Are Implicit and Explicit Child-Like Self-Concept and Attitude Toward Children Associated with Sexual Offending Against Children?

Some men convicted of sexual offences against children express an exaggerated affiliation with childhood, ascribe child-like characteristics to themselves, experience strong non-sexual liking of children, and hold positive views of children and childhood. These features are generally called emotional congruence with children. The present study examined child-like self-concept, which is an association of self with children and child-like characteristics, attitude toward children, and general emotional congruence with children as correlates of sexual offending against children and pedophilia. Male participants (18 sexual offenders against unrelated children; 7 incest offenders; 22 non-sexual offenders; 54 students) completed newly developed implicit and explicit measures of child-like self-concept and attitude toward children, as well as more established self-report measures of emotional congruence with children. Assessments of pedophilic interest and sexual recidivism risk were obtained from official file information. Sexual offenders against unrelated children reported higher levels of implicit child-like self-concept and self-reported emotional congruence with children when compared to the other three groups. Implicit child-like self-concept showed a small correlation with emotional congruence measures, whereas implicit attitude toward children was moderately correlated with the emotional congruence measures. Implicit child-like self-concept, implicit attitude toward children, and the emotional congruence measures were associated with greater pedophilic interest and sexual recidivism risk. The present findings provide a nuanced understanding of the emotional congruence with children construct and have implications for theory, research, and treatment of sexual offenders against children.

Attitude May Be Everything, But Is Everything an Attitude? Cognitive Distortions May Not Be Evaluations of Rape.

Cognitive distortions are often referred to as attitudes toward rape in theory, research, and clinical practice pertaining to sexual aggression. In the social-psychological literature, however, attitudes are typically defined as evaluations; thus, in this context, attitudes toward rape are considered evaluations of rape (e.g., rape is negative vs. positive). The purpose of the current study was to explore whether a widely used measure of cognitive distortions (RAPE Scale; Bumby, 1996) assesses evaluation of rape, and, if not, whether evaluation of rape and the cognitions assessed by the RAPE Scale are independently associated with sexually aggressive behavior. Participants (660 male undergraduate students) completed the RAPE Scale as well as measures of evaluation of rape and sexually aggressive behavior. An exploratory factor analysis revealed that the RAPE Scale items formed a correlated but distinct factor from the Evaluation of Rape Scale items. Regression analyses indicated that the Evaluation of Rape Scale and the RAPE Scale had small to moderate independent associations with self-report measures of sexually aggressive behavior. Our results suggest that evaluation of rape may be distinct from cognitive distortions regarding rape, and both evaluation and cognitive distortions may be relevant for understanding sexual violence.

Examining Implicit and Explicit Evaluations of Sexual Aggression and Sexually Aggressive Behavior in Men Recruited Online.

The purpose of the current study was to explore the relationship between implicit and explicit evaluations of sexual aggression and indicators of sexually aggressive behavior in samples of students and community men recruited online. Participants were male undergraduate students recruited online from a Canadian University ( N = 150) and men recruited from the community via an online panel ( N = 378). Participants completed measures of implicit and explicit evaluations of sexual aggression, cognitive distortions regarding rape, self-reported past sexually aggressive behavior, and self-reported proclivity to commit sexually aggressive behavior. We found that more positive explicit evaluations and more cognitive distortions were moderately to strongly associated with sexual aggression; however, this was not the case for implicit evaluations of rape. Our results suggest that explicit evaluations of sexual aggression and cognitive distortions may be relevant for understanding sexual aggression against adults, and that more research is needed exploring whether or not implicit evaluations are associated with sexually aggressive behavior.

Implicit and Explicit Evaluations of Sexual Aggression Predict Subsequent Sexually Aggressive Behavior in a Sample of Community Men.

The current longitudinal study explored the extent to which implicit and explicit evaluations of sexual aggression predict subsequent sexually aggressive behavior. Participants (248 community men recruited online) completed measures of implicit and explicit evaluations and self-reported sexually aggressive behavior at two time points, approximately 4 months apart. Implicit and explicit evaluations of sexual aggression at Wave 1 had small significant and independent predictive relationships with sexually aggressive behavior at Wave 2, while controlling for sexually aggressive behavior at Wave 1. This is the first study to test whether implicit and explicit evaluations predict subsequent sexually aggressive behavior. Our findings are consistent with the possibility that both implicit and explicit evaluations may be relevant for understanding and preventing subsequent sexually aggressive behavior. If these findings can be replicated, evaluations of sexual aggression should be studied with more rigorous methodology (e.g., experimental design) and correctional/forensic populations, and possibly addressed in risk assessment and interventions.

An Evaluation of the Reliability, Construct Validity, and Factor Structure of the Static-2002R.

The fundamental psychometric properties of the subscales found in the Static-2002R, an actuarial measure of sexual recidivism risk, were evaluated in the current study. Namely, the reliability, concurrent and construct validity, and factor structure of the Static-2002R subscales were examined with a sample of 372 adult male sex offenders. In addition to using validated measures of sexual violence risk to examine concurrent validity, construct-related measures taken from extant risk measures and psychometric tests were correlated with three of the subscales to assess overall construct validity. Moderate support was found for the reliability of the Static-2002R. The concurrent and construct validity of the General Criminality, Persistence of Sexual Offending, and Deviant Sexual Interest subscales were supported. Generally, these findings further support the Static-2002R as a valid sex offender risk appraisal instrument that encompasses multiple distinct, clinically relevant, risk domains.

Emotional Congruence With Children Is Associated With Sexual Deviancy in Sexual Offenders Against Children.

Emotional congruence with children is a psychologically meaningful risk factor for sexual offending against children. The present study examines the correlates of emotional congruence with children in a sample of 424 adult male sexual offenders who started a period of community supervision in Canada, Alaska, and Iowa between 2001 and 2005. Consistent with previous work, we found sexual offenders against children high in emotional congruence with children were more likely to be sexually deviant, have poor sexual self-regulation, experience social loneliness, and have more distorted cognitions about sex with children. Overall, our findings are most consistent with a sexual deviancy model, with some support for a blockage model.

Does Change on the MOLEST and RAPE Scales Predict Sexual Recidivism?

The purpose of the current study was to examine whether the MOLEST and RAPE scales and change on these measures predicted sexual recidivism in a sample of 146 adult male sexual offenders who participated in a high-intensity treatment program while incarcerated. The majority of subjects had functional scores on the MOLEST and RAPE scales prior to treatment. Of those who had dysfunctional pre-treatment scores, the majority made significant gains. However, the MOLEST and RAPE scales did not significantly predict sexual recidivism. This was the case for pre-treatment scores, post-treatment scores, and change scores. Our findings are generally not consistent with the view that these measures assess dynamic risk factors for sexual recidivism. However, this is the first published study to examine the predictive validity of these scales and more rigorous research is needed before firm conclusions can be drawn.

Thinking clearly about violent cognitions: attitudes may be distinct from other cognitions.

The purpose of the current study was to explore whether measures such as the Violence Scale of the Revised Measures of Criminal Attitudes and Associates (MCAA-R-V) and the Criminal Attitudes to Violence Scale (CAVS) assess attitudes toward violence (i.e., evaluation of violence) and whether attitudes and the cognitions assessed by the MCAA-R-V and CAVS are independently associated with violent behavior. Participants (568 undergraduate students) completed the MCAA-R-V and the CAVS, as well as measures of evaluation of violence, evaluation of violent people, identification of self as violent, and past violent behavior. Exploratory factor analyses revealed that the MCAA-R-V and CAVS items formed correlated but distinct factors from the items of the evaluation of violence, evaluation of violent people, and identification of self as violent scales. Regression analyses indicated that evaluation of violence and identification of self as violent correlated with violent behavior independently of the MCAA-R-V and CAVS. Our results suggest that attitudes toward violence may be distinct from other cognitions often referred to as "attitudes" in the criminological literature, and both attitudes and these other cognitions may be relevant for understanding violent behavior.

Does change in hostility predict sexual recidivism?

The purpose of the study was to examine whether scores on a widely used measure of hostility--the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI)--and change on this measure predicted sexual recidivism in a sample of 120 adult male incarcerated sexual offenders. Pre- and posttreatment scores, simple difference scores, and clinically significant change were examined. The majority of participants had functional scores on the BDHI prior to treatment. Of those who had dysfunctional pretreatment scores, the majority remained unchanged. Higher posttreatment scores on the Assault and Verbal Hostility subscales significantly predicted sexual recidivism. The remaining pre- and posttreatment scores as well as change scores and classifications did not significantly predict sexual recidivism. Our findings suggest that the Assault and Verbal Hostility subscales may be useful for predicting sexual recidivism but were not clearly consistent with the notion that the BDHI assesses a dynamic risk factor(s) for sexual recidivism. Due to a number of limitations of the current study, however, more rigorous research is needed before firm conclusions can be drawn.

Viewing child pornography: prevalence and correlates in a representative community sample of young Swedish men.

Most research on child pornography use has been based on selected clinical or criminal justice samples; risk factors for child pornography use in the general population remain largely unexplored. In this study, we examined prevalence, risk factors, and correlates of viewing depictions of adult-child sex in a population-representative sample of 1,978 young Swedish men (17-20 years, Mdn = 18 years, overall response rate, 77 %). In an anonymous, school-based survey, participants self-reported sexual coercion experiences, attitudes and beliefs about sex, perceived peer attitudes, and sexual interests and behaviors; including pornography use, sexual interest in children, and sexually coercive behavior. A total of 84 (4.2 %) young men reported they had ever viewed child pornography. Most theory-based variables were moderately and significantly associated with child pornography viewing and were consistent with models of sexual offending implicating both antisociality and sexual deviance. In multivariate logistic regression analysis, 7 of 15 tested factors independently predicted child pornography viewing and explained 42 % of the variance: ever had sex with a male, likely to have sex with a child aged 12-14, likely to have sex with a child 12 or less, perception of children as seductive, having friends who have watched child pornography, frequent pornography use, and ever viewed violent pornography. From these, a 6-item Child Pornography Correlates Scale was constructed and then cross-validated in a similar but independent Norwegian sample.

Correlates of emotional congruence with children in sexual offenders against children: a test of theoretical models in an incarcerated sample.

Emotional congruence with children is a psychological construct theoretically involved in the etiology and maintenance of sexual offending against children. Research conducted to date has not examined the relationship between emotional congruence with children and other psychological meaningful risk factors for sexual offending against children. The current study derived potential correlates of emotional congruence with children from the published literature and proposed three models of emotional congruence with children that contain relatively unique sets of correlates: the blockage, sexual deviance, and psychological immaturity models. Using Area under the Curve analysis, we assessed the relationship between emotional congruence with children and offense characteristics, victim demographics, and psychologically meaningful risk factors in a sample of incarcerated sexual offenders against children (n=221). The sexual deviance model received the most support: emotional congruence with children was significantly associated with deviant sexual interests, sexual self-regulation problems, and cognition that condones and supports child molestation. The blockage model received partial support, and the immaturity model received the least support. Based on the results, we propose a set of further predictions regarding the relationships between emotional congruence with children and other psychologically meaningful risk factors to be examined in future research.

Implicit and explicit attitudes toward rape are associated with sexual aggression.

We examined the relationship between self-reported sexual aggression and implicit and explicit attitudes towards rape in a sample of 86 male heterosexual university students. Large, significant group differences were found between the most sexually aggressive participants and the nonaggressive participants, with the most sexually aggressive group showing less negative implicit and explicit attitudes towards rape (Cohen's d=0.76-1.20). Implicit and explicit attitudes provided complementary information such that together they were more strongly associated with sexual aggression than on their own. The current findings suggest that implicit and explicit attitudes towards rape are associated with sexual aggression. In addition to the broader set of cognitions that appear to be assessed by most self-report measures, the narrower construct of attitudes towards rape may be a fruitful avenue of further exploration for research, assessment, and treatment of sexual aggression.

Emotional congruence with children and sexual offending against children: a meta-analytic review.

OBJECTIVE: Emotional congruence with children is an exaggerated affective and cognitive affiliation with children that is posited to be involved in the initiation and maintenance of sexual offending against children. The current meta-analysis examined the relationship between emotional congruence with children and sexual offending against children, sexual recidivism, and change following sexual offender treatment. METHOD: A systematic literature review of online academic databases, conference proceedings, governmental agency websites, and article, book chapter, and book reference lists was performed. Thirty studies on emotional congruence with children in sexual offenders against children (SOC) were included in a random-effects meta-analysis. RESULTS: Extrafamilial SOC-especially those with male victims--evidenced higher emotional congruence with children than most non--SOC comparison groups and intrafamilial SOC. In contrast, intrafamilial SOC evidenced less emotional congruence with children than many of the non-SOC comparison groups. Higher levels of emotional congruence with children were associated with moderately higher rates of sexual recidivism. The association between emotional congruence with children and sexual recidivism was significantly stronger in extrafamilial SOC samples (d = 0.58, 95% CI [0.31, 0.85]) compared with intrafamilial SOC samples (d = -0.15, 95% CI [-0.58, 0.27]). Similarly, emotional congruence with children showed a significant reduction from pre- to posttreatment for extrafamilial SOC (d = 0.41, 95% CI [0.33, 0.85]), but not for intrafamilial SOC (d = 0.06, 95% CI [-0.10, 0.22]). CONCLUSIONS: Emotional congruence with children is a characteristic of extrafamilial SOC, is moderately predictive of sexual recidivism, and is potentially amenable through treatment efforts.