Refractory mixed proliferative and membranous lupus nephritis treated with the topoisomerase I inhibitor irinotecan as add-on therapy.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the safety and effects of irinotecan, an inhibitor of topoisomerase I, on refractory lupus nephritis. METHOD: A patient with refractory lupus nephritis under medication with mycophenolic acid, prednisolone, and hydroxychloroquine was treated with add-on low-dose irinotecan. Irinotecan was applied every fourth week at a dose of 50 mg/m2 for four cycles followed by 100 mg/m2 for another eight cycles. Renal function and anti-double-stranded DNA antibodies as well as blood count for evaluation of side effects were assessed during the treatment with irinotecan. RESULTS: Before starting the treatment with irinotecan, a urine protein/creatinine ratio of 1298 mg/g was determined. This declined to 613 mg/g after four cycles with 50 mg/m2 irinotecan and was further reduced to 198 mg/g when using the higher dose of irinotecan. Kidney function remained stable, with creatinine levels of 1.66 mg/dL at the beginning and 1.76 mg/dL at the end of treatment with irinotecan. Importantly, no side effects, such as diarrhoea or neutropenia, were observed during the entire course of treatment. CONCLUSION: Administration of low-dose irinotecan as add-on medication for the treatment of refractory lupus nephritis was shown to be safe. Clinical trials are needed to determine whether irinotecan can improve kidney function and the outcome of patients with refractory lupus nephritis.

[Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for autoimmune diseases : Current indications and mode of action, a review on behalf of the EBMT Autoimmune Diseases Working Party (ADWP)]. / Autologe hämatopoetische Stammzelltransplantation bei Autoimmunerkrankungen : Aktuelle Indikationen und Wirkungsweise, ein Review der EBMT Autoimmune Diseases Working Party (ADWP).

The recent introduction of biologic and targeted synthetic disease-modifying drugs has led to more specificity in the treatment of autoimmune diseases; however, they require continuous or intermittent administration, are associated with cumulative risks for side effects, result in high costs and provide no cure. In contrast, high-dose chemotherapy followed by transplantation of autologous hematopoietic stem cells (AHSCT) has been demonstrated to induce clinical remission in various autoimmune diseases that can persist over many years without continued maintenance therapy. The principle behind AHSCT is an elimination of important components of the autoreactive immunological memory with subsequent regeneration of the complete immune system. Several studies have indicated that such an immune reset is associated with fundamental changes in the immune repertoire leading to an induction of tolerance against self-antigens. This article presents the current indications of AHSCT for autoimmune diseases based on the registry data of the European Society of Blood and Marrow Transplantation (EBMT) and discusses the results from mechanistic studies, which provide detailed insights into the mode of action of this treatment.

[Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation for systemic sclerosis : Position statement of the stem cell therapy working party of the German Society of Rheumatology]. / Autologe hämatopoetische Stammzelltransplantation bei systemischer Sklerose : Positionspapier des Arbeitskreises Stammzelltherapie der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Rheumatologie.

There have been three randomized controlled trials on autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (AHSCT) in systemic sclerosis (SSc) that demonstrated significant superiority with respect to survival, improvement of cutaneous fibrosis, lung function and quality of life compared to standard treatment; however, these advantages must be carefully weighed against the transplantation-related risks. For this reason, an expert group from the stem cell therapy working party of the German Society for Rheumatology (DGRh) has now developed recommendations for the use of AHSCT in SSc. Based on the high-quality evidence, AHSCT is considered as the standard option for the treatment of selected SSc patients. Potential candidates for AHSCT are those with early, rapidly progressive, diffuse cutaneous SSc with visceral manifestations who have not yet developed severe damage to internal organs. A close cooperation between rheumatologists and transplantation centers is crucial for optimizing patient selection and treatment outcomes.

[Autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in systemic lupus erythematosus]. / Autologe hämatopoetische Stammzelltransplantation bei systemischem Lupus erythematodes.

Although the treatment options for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) have significantly improved over the past years through the introduction of novel targeted biologic therapies, there are still some patients who suffer from refractory and potentially life-threatening courses of the disease. For these patients autologous hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (ASCT) after immunoablative chemotherapy provides a promising treatment option with curative potential. Based on preclinical models, ASCT was first introduced in 1996 and has since been carried out in approximately 300 patients worldwide. Clinical study results confirmed a disease-free survival in approximately 50 % of patients after 5 years despite termination of immunosuppressive treatment. By careful patient selection and improved anti-infection prophylaxis during stem cell therapy, transplantation-associated mortality could be reduced from an initial 13 % to currently an average of 6 %. Meanwhile, mechanistic studies have provided proof of concept that ASCT not only exerts intensified immunosuppressive effects but is also associated with fundamental qualitative changes of the immune system that may rewire a chronic autoimmune system into a naïve and self-tolerant state: in other words immune reset. Overall, ASCT for SLE is still reserved for patients who do not sufficiently respond to standard therapy. Treatment should be carried out in close cooperation with centers specializing in hematology and only within the framework of clinical studies.

Long-term follow-up of fertility and pregnancy in autoimmune diseases after autologous haematopoietic stem cell transplantation.

Issues of fertility and pregnancy require special attention in the long-term care of patients with autoimmune diseases (AD), who are candidates for haematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). In this single-centre observational study, we report fertility status and pregnancy outcomes in 15 patients (11 female and 4 male) after immunoablation with cyclophosphamide, antithymocyte globulin and autologous CD34+-selected HSCT for severe, refractory AD. The median follow-up after HSCT was 12 years (range 2-16 years). Impaired fertility was observed in six patients (five females and one male) before HSCT based on sexual hormone measurements. Higher age and cumulative cyclophosphamide dosage before HSCT correlated with fertility impairment. Median serum level of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) was significantly higher in female patients at 1 year after HSCT compared to baseline values, but premature ovarian failure developed in only one patient. Four women had five pregnancies and six healthy offsprings during follow-up, and no miscarriages were observed. The mothers were in treatment-free remissions during conception. No peripartal flare of their AD occurred. Although AD patients undergoing HSCT are at risk of developing infertility, pre-HSCT treatment and patients' age seem to have higher impact on long-term fertility status than HSCT itself. HSCT offers the opportunity to conceive during treatment-free remissions with favourable pregnancy outcomes.

Autoantibodies, complement and type I interferon as biomarkers for personalized medicine in SLE.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) can be a mysterious disease, presenting with extremely divergent clinical phenotypes. Already, biomarkers are very helpful tools for diagnosis, assessment and monitoring of disease activity, differential diagnosis of clinical manifestations, prediction of the disease course and stratified therapy, and they hold the key to personalized medicine in SLE. We summarize the clinical information that can only be supplied by autoantibodies, complement components and interferon biomarkers in this diverse disease.

[Immunomodulatory therapy of autoimmune diseases : Quo vadis?]. / Immunmodulatorische Therapie bei Autoimmunerkrankungen : Quo vadis?

Immunomodulatory therapy is the gold standard in the treatment of autoimmune diseases. Increasing knowledge of the underlying mechanisms leading to autoimmunity enables patients to be treated with better and more specific therapies apart from the classical therapies, such as antimalarial drugs and glucocorticoids. For patients this nowadays means a great chance to receive optimized therapy. Numerous treatment options have been developed over the last decades and the development of new treatment approaches and strategies is still ongoing. This review gives an overview of immunomodulatory therapy approaches.

Serum antibodies to human leucocyte antigen (HLA)-E, HLA-F and HLA-G in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) during disease flares: Clinical relevance of HLA-F autoantibodies.

T lymphocyte hyperactivity and progressive inflammation in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) patients results in over-expression of human leucocyte antigen (HLA)-Ib on the surface of lymphocytes. These are shed into the circulation upon inflammation, and may augment production of antibodies promoting pathogenicity of the disease. The objective was to evaluate the association of HLA-Ib (HLA-E, HLA-F and HLA-G) antibodies to the disease activity of SLE. The immunoglobulin (Ig)G/IgM reactivity to HLA-Ib and ß2m in the sera of 69 German, 29 Mexican female SLE patients and 17 German female controls was measured by multiplex Luminex(®)-based flow cytometry. The values were expressed as mean flourescence intensity (MFI). Only the German SLE cohort was analysed in relation to the clinical disease activity. In the controls, anti-HLA-G IgG predominated over other HLA-Ib antibodies, whereas SLE patients had a preponderance of anti-HLA-F IgG over the other HLA-Ib antibodies. The disease activity index, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Disease Activity Index (SLEDAI)-2000, was reflected only in the levels of anti-HLA-F IgG. Anti-HLA-F IgG with MFI level of 500-1999 was associated with active SLE, whereas inactive SLE revealed higher MFI (>2000). When anti-HLA-F IgG were cross-reactive with other HLA-Ib alleles, their reactivity was reflected in the levels of anti-HLA-E and -G IgG. The prevalence of HLA-F-monospecific antibodies in SLE patients was also associated with the clinical disease activity. Anti-HLA-F IgG is possibly involved in the clearance of HLA-F shed from lymphocytes and inflamed tissues to lessen the disease's severity, and thus emerges as a beneficial immune biomarker. Therefore, anti-HLA-Ib IgG should be considered as a biomarker in standard SLE diagnostics.

[Pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus]. / Pathogenese des systemischen Lupus erythematodes.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disease with an extremely complex pathogenesis. Due to a genetic predisposition the disease can be induced by multiple stress factors involving epigenetic mechanisms and under the influence of the innate immune system. Defective clearance of immune complexes and apoptotic material together with enhanced neutrophil extracellular trap formation (NETosis) as well as up-regulation of type 1 interferon in particular, drive the adaptive immune system to a breakdown of self-tolerance. The result is a B cell hyperactivity, which leads to the generation of a multitude of different autoantibodies that are not only directed against nuclear antigens. Autoantibodies are the initiators for the involvement of many organs, which enhances further inflammatory cells and cytokines by participation of effector T-cells. Finally, an autoreactive immunological (plasma cell) memory is formed, which contributes to chronification and is associated with therapy-refractive courses of the disease. The depletion of the autoreactive immunological memory by immunoablation can lead to induction of self-tolerance and long-term remission.

[Plasma cells]. / Plasmazellen.

Plasma cells are specialized terminally differentiated B cells that synthesize and secrete antibodies to maintain humoral immunity. By the production of pathogenic antibodies, plasma cells contribute to the development of many conditions, such as autoimmune disorders, transplant rejection and allergies. Two different plasma cell compartments can independently generate different types of pathogenic antibodies: (1) short-lived plasmablasts (proliferating precursors of mature plasma cells) and plasma cells, which live only as long as B cells are activated. Consequently, these cells cause disease flares that respond to immunosuppressive drugs and B cell targeting therapies. (2) Long-lived non-proliferating memory plasma cells, which survive in niches in bone marrow and inflamed tissues for months, years or a lifetime independent of B or T cell help or antigen contact. Because they do not respond to immunosuppressants or treatment targeting B cells, they are responsible for refractory chronic conditions. Therefore, long-lived memory plasma cells in particular have emerged as important therapeutic targets and strategies to target these cells are discussed in this article. So far long-lived plasma cells can only be depleted by immunoablative therapy with antithymocyte globulin in the setting of stem cell transplantation or by treatment with proteasome inhibitors approved for multiple myeloma. These strategies provide options for treating refractory autoantibody-mediated diseases. One interesting approach aims at an antigen-specific elimination of target plasma cells without depleting the protective plasma cells responsible for maintaining humoral immunity.

SCT for severe autoimmune diseases: consensus guidelines of the European Society for Blood and Marrow Transplantation for immune monitoring and biobanking.

Over the past 15 years, SCT has emerged as a promising treatment option for patients with severe autoimmune diseases (ADs). Mechanistic studies recently provided the proof-of-concept that restoration of immunological tolerance can be achieved by haematopoietic SCT in chronic autoimmunity through eradication of the pathologic, immunologic memory and profound reconfiguration of the immune system, that is, immune 'resetting'. Nevertheless, a number of areas remain unresolved and warrant further investigation to refine our understanding of the underlying mechanisms of action and to optimize clinical SCT protocols. Due to the low number of patients transplanted in each centre, it is essential to adequately collect and analyse biological samples in a larger cohort of patients under standardized conditions. The European society for blood and marrow transplantation Autoimmune Diseases and Immunobiology Working Parties have, therefore, undertaken a joint initiative to develop and implement guidelines for 'good laboratory practice' in relation to procurement, processing, storage and analysis of biological specimens for immune reconstitution studies in AD patients before, during and after SCT. The aim of this document is to provide practical recommendations for biobanking of samples and laboratory immune monitoring in patients with ADs undergoing SCT, both for routine supportive care purposes and investigational studies.

[Rheumatoid factor or antinuclear antibodies as incidental finding]. / Positiver Rheumafaktor oder positive ANA als Zufallsbefund.

Rheumatoid factor and antinuclear antibodies are detectable in many different conditions and are ordered by various specialities. The interpretation of results, however, is quite complex.The objective of this article is to help apply these tests correctly and enable an accurate interpretation of the test results. Furthermore, we describe the steps in the differential diagnostics for selecting those patients who need to be referred to a rheumatologist.

[Statement on the use of mycophenolate mofetil for systemic lupus erythematosus]. / Stellungnahme zum Einsatz von Mycophenolat-Mofetil beim systemischen Lupus erythematodes.

Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) is among the few immunosuppressive drugs with sufficient data from controlled studies on the therapy of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). In the light of results from recently published randomized controlled trials on the effectiveness of MMF in the treatment of lupus nephritis, it has become necessary to revise the statement of the Germany Society of Rheumatology on the use of MMF for SLE. In the induction therapy of lupus nephritis MMF has been shown to be equivalent in effectiveness to i.v. cyclophosphamide and superior to azathioprine in the maintenance phase. Cyclophosphamide is inferior to MMF and probably also to azathioprine as maintenance therapy and should therefore, not be considered for this purpose and also because of its toxicity. For other organ manifestations MMF also constitutes an alternative when approved immunosuppressants are not able to control the disease and glucocorticoids cannot be reduced to 7.5 mg prednisolone daily equivalents or less.

[Neurological manifestations in connective tissue disease]. / Neurologische Manifestationen bei Kollagenosen.

In connective tissue diseases, especially systemic lupus erythematosus and Sjögren's syndrome, diverse neurological symptoms and syndromes involving both the central and peripheral nervous system can occur at any stage of the disease. The pathogenesis is diverse. Prevalence figures in the literature vary considerably and the causal relationships are often uncertain. Very often connective tissue diseases must be considered in the differential diagnosis of conditions manifesting with unclear neurological symptoms. Both rheumatologists and neurologists should be familiar with the main neurological signs, symptoms and complications of connective tissue diseases and should recognize the importance of diagnostic testing.

Multi-center evaluation of autoantibodies to the major ribosomal P C22 epitope.

Anti-ribosomal P (Rib-P) autoantibodies have been demonstrated to be a specific diagnostic marker for systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). The aim of this study was to evaluate the prevalence of anti-Rib-P (C22) antibodies in patients with SLE drawn from international, multi-center clinics. Sera collected from patients with SLE (n = 333) and various controls (n = 397) in four centers were tested for anti-C22 autoantibodies by ELISA (Dr. Fooke Laboratorien). SLE activity index 2000 (SLEDAI-2K) was assessed for each patient in two centers. Autoantibody profiles were generated for the SLE samples from Canada using two profile assays. Using the manufacturer`s cut-off value, the prevalence of anti-C22 autoantibodies in patients with SLE between the participating centers varied from 18.2 to 29.0%. In the control sera, the prevalence of anti-C22 autoantibodies was low and the titer in the individual control groups varied significantly. In patients with connective tissue disease other than SLE and in patients with infections disease, the anti-C22 reactivity was significantly higher than in healthy controls (P < 0.0001). Overall sensitivity/specificity was 23.1/99.0%, respectively. Anti-Rib-P reactivity was significantly higher in young (mean age 33.9 vs. 45.3 years) SLE patients (P < 0.0001) and was associated with decreased C3 (P = 0.0335) and C4 levels (P = 0.0129). Moderate association between anti-C22 reactivity and SLEDAI-2K was observed in one cohort (P = 0.02). Anti-C22 autoantibodies are frequently and specifically found in patients with SLE. Although an association between anti-C22 reactivity and SLEDAI score was observed in one center, measurement of anti-C22 autoantibodies is likely not appropriate for measuring global disease activity.

Current state of evidence on 'off-label' therapeutic options for systemic lupus erythematosus, including biological immunosuppressive agents, in Germany, Austria and Switzerland--a consensus report.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) can be a severe and potentially life-threatening disease that often represents a therapeutic challenge because of its heterogeneous organ manifestations. Only glucocorticoids, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine, azathioprine, cyclophosphamide and very recently belimumab have been approved for SLE therapy in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Dependence on glucocorticoids and resistance to the approved therapeutic agents, as well as substantial toxicity, are frequent. Therefore, treatment considerations will include 'off-label' use of medication approved for other indications. In this consensus approach, an effort has been undertaken to delineate the limits of the current evidence on therapeutic options for SLE organ disease, and to agree on common practice. This has been based on the best available evidence obtained by a rigorous literature review and the authors' own experience with available drugs derived under very similar health care conditions. Preparation of this consensus document included an initial meeting to agree upon the core agenda, a systematic literature review with subsequent formulation of a consensus and determination of the evidence level followed by collecting the level of agreement from the panel members. In addition to overarching principles, the panel have focused on the treatment of major SLE organ manifestations (lupus nephritis, arthritis, lung disease, neuropsychiatric and haematological manifestations, antiphospholipid syndrome and serositis). This consensus report is intended to support clinicians involved in the care of patients with difficult courses of SLE not responding to standard therapies by providing up-to-date information on the best available evidence.

Efficacy and safety of enteric-coated mycophenolate sodium in combination with two glucocorticoid regimens for the treatment of active lupus nephritis.

Mycophenolic acid, in combination with glucocorticoids, has been shown in a series of trials to be safe and effective for treatment of lupus nephritis. Regimens that permit glucocorticoid dose reduction without loss of efficacy would be advantageous. MyLupus was a 24-week, multicentre, open-label, study in patients with active proliferative lupus nephritis treated with enteric-coated mycophenolate sodium (EC-MPS), randomized to standard-dose (n = 42) or reduced-dose (n = 39) glucocorticoids. Complete response at week 24, the primary endpoint, was achieved in 19.8% (16/81) of patients (19.0% standard-dose, 20.5% reduced-dose; lower limit of 97.5% CI for the difference -15.9%, p = 0.098, i.e. non-inferiority was not shown). Partial response occurred in 42.0% of patients (34/81). From baseline to week 24, the mean global British Isles Lupus Assessment Group (BILAG) score decreased from 14.0 ± 5.4 to 5.0 ± 3.8 (p < 0.001). The incidence of adverse events was 80.2% (65/81), most frequently gastrointestinal complications (31/81, 38.3%). Infections were reported in 57.1% and 35.9% of standard- and reduced-dose glucocorticoid patients, respectively (p = 0.056), with herpes zoster in 16.7% and 0% (p = 0.012). Three patients discontinued study medication due to adverse events. This exploratory study suggests that EC-MPS may facilitate glucocorticoid reduction without loss of efficacy in patients with active lupus nephritis, but results require confirmation in a controlled, longer-term study versus the current standard of care.

[Systemic lupus erythematosus]. / Systemischer Lupus erythematodes.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is the classical systemic autoimmune disease. Its prevalence is slightly below 1:1,000 in women and 10-fold lower in men. Typically, the disease manifests in women of childbearing age. While severe untreated SLE used to be a fatal disease, prognosis has improved stepwise with corticosteroids, cyclophosphamide and novel therapies. Deaths directly related to SLE are uncommon nowadays but infections, thromboses and accelerated atherosclerosis cause significant problems. The current review presents the state of the art in managing SLE patients.

HLA-DRhigh/CD27high plasmablasts indicate active disease in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus.

OBJECTIVES: Monitoring of peripheral B-cell subsets in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) revealed an activity-related expansion of CD27(++)CD20(-)CD19(dim) Ig-secreting cells. A similar subset has also been identified 6-8 days after tetanus/diphtheria vaccination in normal individuals and in patients with infectious disease. METHODS: This subset was analysed further focussing on the HLA-DR surface expression in a cohort of 25 patients with SLE. RESULTS: This study revealed that 86% (range 59-97%) of CD27(++)CD20(-)CD19(dim) cells express high levels of HLA-DR, are also expanded in the bone marrow, and represent plasmablasts enriched with anti-dsDNA secreting cells. The remaining CD27(++)CD20(-)CD19(dim) cells were HLA-DR(low) and represent mature plasma cells. Importantly, HLA-DR(high) plasmablasts showed a closer correlation with lupus activity and anti-dsDNA levels than the previously identified CD27(++)CD20(-)CD19(dim) cells. CONCLUSION: HLA-DR(high)CD27(++)CD20(-)CD19(dim) plasmablasts represent a more precise indicator of lupus activity and suggest that there is an overproduction or lack of negative selection of these cells in SLE.