Exploring the Experience of Pain and Pain Management for Pregnant and Postpartum Veterans With Chronic Musculoskeletal Pain.

BACKGROUND: To examine how veterans experience and treat pain during the perinatal period, we conducted a qualitative study to explore the experiences of pain, pain management, and facilitators and barriers to treatment among perinatal veterans. METHODS: We identified veterans who received care at 1 of 15 Veterans Health Administration (VHA) facilities across the United States and were enrolled in an ongoing cohort study. All participants gave birth to a newborn between March 2016 and June 2021 and met the inclusion criteria for having a prepregnancy pain-related musculoskeletal condition. We completed interviews with 30 veterans between November 2021 and January 2022. We used a framework approach to our qualitative analysis. RESULTS: Veterans in our sample were, on average, 31 years of age, married (80%), and white (47%). The most common type of pain diagnoses were back pain (93%) and joint disorders (73%). We identified the following major themes: 1) veteran experiences of pain during pregnancy, 2) challenges to pain care during the perinatal period, and 3) veteran recommendations for VHA perinatal pain care. Experiences of pain during pregnancy varied and several barriers to pain care were identified. Veterans suggested several ways the VHA could improve pain care during the perinatal period, including more training for VHA providers on perinatal pain care and greater complementary and integrative health coverage. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding the unique needs of pregnant veterans with chronic pain is important to provide high-quality care during the perinatal period. Veterans who participated in this study highlighted several areas where the VHA could improve pain management during pregnancy and postpartum.

MMPI-2-RF Profiles of Treatment-Seeking Veterans in a VA Pain Clinic and Associations with Markers of Physical Performance.

Chronic pain is a debilitating condition for many military Veterans and is associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This study examined the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form (MMPI-2-RF) in 144 Veterans (88.2% male, mean age = 57.95 years) recruited from a VA outpatient pain clinic and associations with self-reported pain severity, pain-related interference in daily activities, prescription opioid use, and objective metrics of physical performance on tasks impacted by pain (walking, stair climbing, grip strength, indexed by a single latent variable). Among the cohort with valid responses on the MMPI-2-RF (n = 117) and probable PTSD, mean Somatic Complaints (RC1) and Ideas of Persecution (RC6) scores were clinically elevated. All MMPI-2-RF scales were more strongly correlated with self-reported pain interference than severity. Regressions revealed associations between self-rated pain interference (but not pain or PTSD severity) and physical performance scores (ß = .36, p = .001). MMPI-2-RF overreporting Validity and Higher-Order scales contributed incremental variance in predicting physical performance, including Infrequent Psychopathology Responses (ß = .33, p = .002). PTSD severity was associated with prescription opioid use when accounting for the effects of over-reported somatic and cognitive symptoms (odds ratio 1.05, p ≤ .025). Results highlight the role of symptom overreporting and perceptions of functional impairment to observable behaviors among individuals with chronic pain.

Musculoskeletal Pain During Pregnancy Among Veterans: Associations With Health and Health Care Utilization.

INTRODUCTION: Musculoskeletal (MSK) pain is more likely to be diagnosed in veterans compared with the general population; however, MSK pain during pregnancy has not been studied in veterans. This study examined health and health care use differences between pregnant veterans with and without MSK pain (MSK-). METHODS: Veterans who delivered a newborn before June 1, 2021, were identified from an existing cohort (n = 1,181). Survey and Veterans Health Administration (VA) electronic health record data were obtained on participants. Veterans meeting inclusion criteria were identified as those with MSK pain (MSK+) and were compared with MSK- participants. We examined differences between primary outcomes of VA health care engagement (including mental health diagnoses, health care visits, receipt of prescription opioids, and complementary and integrative health use) and secondary outcomes (including postpartum variables) between MSK pain groups. Adjusted odds ratios (aORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. RESULTS: There were 172 veterans (14.6%) who met MSK pain eligibility criteria. In adjusted models, MSK+ veterans were more likely to be diagnosed with major depressive disorder (aOR, 1.76; 95% CI, 1.22-2.53) and post-traumatic stress disorder (aOR, 1.79; 95% CI, 1.21-2.64) during pregnancy compared with MSK- veterans. The use of VA mental health care (aOR, 1.52; 95% CI, 1.09-2.12) and the odds of receiving an opioid prescription during pregnancy (aOR, 2.76; 95% CI, 1.53-5.00) was higher in MSK+ veterans compared with MSK- veterans. Only a small proportion (3.6%) of our entire cohort used complementary and integrative health approaches during pregnancy. MSK+ veterans were more likely to deliver by cesarean section compared with MSK- veterans (36% vs. 26%). CONCLUSIONS: MSK+ veterans were more likely to be diagnosed with mental health conditions and to use VA mental health care during pregnancy compared with MSK- veterans. Because veterans receive their obstetrical care in the community, understanding the unique needs of pregnant MSK+ veterans in comparison with MSK- veterans is important to provide comprehensive care during the perinatal period.

Pre-implementation formative evaluation of cooperative pain education and self-management expanding treatment for real-world access: A pragmatic pain trial.

OBJECTIVE: Cognitive behavioral therapy for chronic pain (CBT-CP) is an evidence-based treatment for improving functioning and pain intensity for people with chronic pain with extensive evidence of effectiveness. However, there has been relatively little investigation of the factors associated with successful implementation and uptake of CBT-CP, particularly clinician and system level factors. This formative evaluation examined barriers and facilitators to the successful implementation and uptake of CBT-CP from the perspective of CBT-CP clinicians and referring primary care clinicians. METHODS: Qualitative interviews guided by the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research were conducted at nine geographically diverse Veterans Affairs sites as part of a pragmatic clinical trial comparing synchronous, clinician-delivered CBT-CP and remotely delivered, technology-assisted CBT-CP. Analysis was informed by a grounded theory approach. RESULTS: Twenty-six clinicians (CBT-CP clinicians = 17, primary care clinicians = 9) from nine VA medical centers participated in individual qualitative interviews conducted by telephone from April 2019 to August 2020. Four themes emerged in the qualitative interviews: (1) the complexity and variability of referral pathways across sites, (2) referring clinician's lack of knowledge about CBT-CP, (3) referring clinician's difficulty identifying suitable candidates for CBT-CP, and (4) preference for interventions that can be completed from home. CONCLUSIONS: This formative evaluation identified clinician and system barriers to widespread implementation of CBT-CP and allowed for refinement of the subsequent implementation of two forms of CBT-CP in an ongoing pragmatic trial. Identification of relative difference in barriers and facilitators in the two forms of CBT-CP may emerge more clearly in a pragmatic trial that evaluates how treatments perform in real-world settings and may provide important information to guide future system-wide implementation efforts.

Sequential and Comparative Evaluation of Pain Treatment Effectiveness Response (SCEPTER), a pragmatic trial for conservative chronic low back pain treatment.

BACKGROUND: Chronic low back pain (cLBP) is a common and highly disabling problem world-wide. Although many treatment options exist, it is unclear how to best sequence the multitude of care options to provide the greatest benefit to patients. METHODS: The Sequential and Comparative Evaluation of Pain Treatment Effectiveness Response (SCEPTER) trial uses a pragmatic, randomized, stepped design. Enrollment targets 2529 participants from 20 Veterans Affairs (VA) medical centers. Participants with chronic low back pain will first be randomized to one of three options: 1) an internet-based self-management program (Pain EASE); 2) a tailored physical therapy program (Enhanced PT); or 3) continued care with active monitoring (CCAM), a form of usual care. Participants not achieving a 30% or 2-point reduction on the study's primary outcome (Brief Pain Inventory Pain Interference (BPI-PI) subscale), 3 months after beginning treatment may undergo re-randomization in a second step to cognitive behavioral therapy for chronic pain, spinal manipulation therapy, or yoga. Secondary outcomes include pain intensity, back pain-related disability, depression, and others. Participants will be assessed every three months until 12 months after initiating their final trial therapy. Companion economic and implementation analyses are also planned. RESULTS: The SCEPTER trial is currently recruiting and enrolling participants. CONCLUSIONS: Trial results will inform treatment decisions for the stepped management of chronic low back pain - a common and disabling condition. Additional analyses will help tailor treatment selection to individual patient characteristics, promote efficient resource use, and identify implementation barriers of interventions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: clinicaltrials.gov Identifier: NCT04142177.

Using Daily Ratings to Examine Treatment Dose and Response in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Chronic Pain: A Secondary Analysis of the Co-Operative Pain Education and Self-Management Clinical Trial.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive behavioral therapy for chronic pain (CBT-CP) has a strong evidence base, but little is known about when treatment benefits are achieved. The present study is a secondary analysis of individuals with chronic back pain recruited for a noninferiority trial comparing interactive voice response (IVR) CBT-CP with in-person CBT-CP. METHODS: On the basis of data from daily IVR surveys, a clinically meaningful change was defined as a 30% reduction in pain intensity (n = 108) or a 45% increase in daily steps (n = 104) compared with the baseline week. We identified individuals who achieved a meaningful change at any point during treatment, and then we compared those who maintained a meaningful change in their final treatment week (i.e., responders) with those who did not or who achieved a meaningful change but lapsed (i.e., nonresponders). RESULTS: During treatment, 46% of participants achieved a clinically meaningful decrease in pain intensity, and 66% achieved a clinically significant increase in number of steps per day. A total of 54% of patients were classified as responders in terms of decreases in pain intensity, and 70% were responders in terms of increases in step count. Survival analyses found that 50% of responders first achieved a clinically meaningful change by week 4 for pain intensity and week 2 for daily steps. Dropout and demographic variables were unrelated to responder status, and there was low agreement between the two measures of treatment response. CONCLUSIONS: Collectively, results suggest that most responders improve within 4 weeks. Evaluating treatment response is highly specific to the outcome measure, with little correlation across outcomes.

Patient-Centered Pain Care Using Artificial Intelligence and Mobile Health Tools: A Randomized Comparative Effectiveness Trial.

Importance: Cognitive behavioral therapy for chronic pain (CBT-CP) is a safe and effective alternative to opioid analgesics. Because CBT-CP requires multiple sessions and therapists are scarce, many patients have limited access or fail to complete treatment. Objectives: To determine if a CBT-CP program that personalizes patient treatment using reinforcement learning, a field of artificial intelligence (AI), and interactive voice response (IVR) calls is noninferior to standard telephone CBT-CP and saves therapist time. Design, Setting, and Participants: This was a randomized noninferiority, comparative effectiveness trial including 278 patients with chronic back pain from the Department of Veterans Affairs health system (recruitment and data collection from July 11, 2017-April 9, 2020). More patients were randomized to the AI-CBT-CP group than to the control (1.4:1) to maximize the system's ability to learn from patient interactions. Interventions: All patients received 10 weeks of CBT-CP. For the AI-CBT-CP group, patient feedback via daily IVR calls was used by the AI engine to make weekly recommendations for either a 45-minute or 15-minute therapist-delivered telephone session or an individualized IVR-delivered therapist message. Patients in the comparison group were offered 10 therapist-delivered telephone CBT-CP sessions (45 minutes/session). Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was the Roland Morris Disability Questionnaire (RMDQ; range 0-24), measured at 3 months (primary end point) and 6 months. Secondary outcomes included pain intensity and pain interference. Consensus guidelines were used to identify clinically meaningful improvements for responder analyses (eg, a 30% improvement in RMDQ scores and pain intensity). Data analyses were performed from April 2021 to May 2022. Results: The study population included 278 patients (mean [SD] age, 63.9 [12.2] years; 248 [89.2%] men; 225 [81.8%] White individuals). The 3-month mean RMDQ score difference between AI-CBT-CP and standard CBT-CP was -0.72 points (95% CI, -2.06 to 0.62) and the 6-month difference was -1.24 (95% CI, -2.48 to 0); noninferiority criterion were met at both the 3- and 6-month end points (P < .001 for both). A greater proportion of patients receiving AI-CBT-CP had clinically meaningful improvements at 6 months as indicated by RMDQ (37% vs 19%; P = .01) and pain intensity scores (29% vs 17%; P = .03). There were no significant differences in secondary outcomes. Pain therapy using AI-CBT-CP required less than half of the therapist time as standard CBT-CP. Conclusions and Relevance: The findings of this randomized comparative effectiveness trial indicated that AI-CBT-CP was noninferior to therapist-delivered telephone CBT-CP and required substantially less therapist time. Interventions like AI-CBT-CP could allow many more patients to be served effectively by CBT-CP programs using the same number of therapists. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02464449.

If you personalize it, will they use it?: Self-reported and observed use of a tailored, internet-based pain self-management program.

Little is known about how individuals with chronic pain use tailored internet-based interventions. This study is the first to compare self-reported skill module use to observed module access and to examine each of these in relationship to tailored recommendations to access specific content. Participants (N = 58) enrolled in a 10-week trial of the Pain EASE program, a tailored internet-based intervention that includes 10 pain self-management skill modules. Participants completed a "Self-Assessment," which was used to provide a "Personalized Plan" that encouraged accessing specific modules. Participants self-reported module use during weekly data collection telephone calls. Program log data were extracted to capture "observed" module use during the trial period. Findings indicated significantly greater self-reported use of the Pain EASE modules compared to observed access with log data. Further, log data revealed that participants accessed less than half of the modules recommended to them via tailoring.

Risk Factors Associated with Healthcare Utilization for Spine Pain.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined potential risk factors associated with healthcare utilization among patients with spine (i.e., neck and back) pain. METHODS: A two-stage sampling approach examined spine pain episodes of care among veterans with a yearly outpatient visit for six consecutive years. Descriptive and bivariate statistics, followed by logistic regression analyses, examined baseline characteristics of veterans with new episodes of care who either continued or discontinued spine pain care. A multivariable logistic regression model examined correlates associated with seeking continued spine pain care. RESULTS: Among 331,908 veterans without spine pain episodes of care during the 2-year baseline observation period, 16.5% (n = 54,852) had a new episode of care during the following 2-year observation period. Of those 54,852 veterans, 37,025 had an outpatient visit data during the final 2-year follow-up period, with 53.7% (n = 19,865) evidencing continued spine pain care. Those with continued care were more likely to be overweight or obese, non-smokers, Army veterans, have higher education, and had higher rates of diagnoses of all medical and mental health conditions examined at baseline. Among several important findings, women had 13% lower odds of continued care during the final 2-year observation period, OR 0.87 (0.81, 0.95). CONCLUSIONS: A number of important demographics and clinical correlates were associated with increased likelihood of seeking new and continued episodes of care for spine pain; however, further examination of risk factors associated with healthcare utilization for spine pain is indicated.

A randomized controlled trial of cognitive behavioral therapy compared with diabetes education for diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain.

A randomized controlled trial compared cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and diabetes education (ED) as an adjunctive treatment for diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain (DPNP). We examined change from baseline to 12- and 36-week follow-up in overall pain intensity (NRS), neuropathic pain intensity/quality, pain interference, and mental health functioning, among others. Although CBT participants demonstrated improvement in pain intensity NRS, there were no between-condition differences at either follow-up. CBT reduced neuropathic pain intensity at 12-weeks more than ED. At 36-weeks, CBT was superior to ED for improving pain interference and mental health functioning. Results provide evidence of benefit of CBT for DPNP.ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT00830011.

Co-occurrence of pain and dyspnea in Veterans with COPD: Relationship to functional status and a pilot study of neural correlates using structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging.

Persons with COPD experience co-occurring dyspnea and pain. Little is known about the relationship between symptom co-occurrence with physical activity (PA) and exercise. Novel diagnostic tools are needed for accurate symptom discrimination. In this secondary analysis, we examined relationships between baseline assessments of pain, dyspnea, objectively measured PA, and exercise capacity in persons with COPD who previously enrolled in three PA studies. Pain was assessed with the bodily pain domain of the Veterans RAND-36 (VR-36), and dyspnea with the modified Medical Research Council (mMRC) scale. Average daily step count was assessed with the Omron HJ-720ITC or FitBit Zip pedometer, and exercise capacity with 6-minute walk test (6MWT). We also conducted a pilot neuroimaging study. Neuroimaging data were acquired on a Siemens 3-Tesla Magnetom Prismafit whole-body scanner. Analysis of variance assessed trends in daily step count and 6MWT distance across categories of co-occurring pain and dyspnea. General linear models examined relationships between cortical thickness and resting state functional connectivity (fc) with symptoms and functional status. In 373 Veterans, 98% were male with mean age 70.5± 8.3 years and FEV1% predicted 59 ± 21%. Compared to those with no co-occurrence of pain and dyspnea, those with co-occurrence walked 1,291-1,444 fewer steps per day and had an 80-85 m lower 6MWT distance. Ten males participated in the pilot neuroimaging study. Predominant findings were that lower cortical thickness and greater fc were associated with higher pain and dyspnea, p<0.05. Greater cortical thickness and lower fc were associated with higher daily step count and 6MWT distance, p<0.05. Regional patterns of associations differed for pain and dyspnea, suggesting that cortical thickness and fc may discriminate symptoms. Co-occurring dyspnea and pain in COPD are associated with significant reductions in PA and exercise capacity. It may be feasible for neuroimaging markers to discriminate between pain and dyspnea.

ICD-10 Coding of Musculoskeletal Conditions in the Veterans Health Administration.

OBJECTIVE: We describe the most frequently used musculoskeletal diagnoses in Veterans Health Administration care. We report the number of visits and patients associated with common musculoskeletal International Classification of Diseases (ICD)-10 codes and compare trends across primary and specialty care settings. DESIGN: Secondary analysis of a longitudinal cohort study. SUBJECTS: Veterans included in the Musculoskeletal Diagnosis Cohort with a musculoskeletal diagnosis from October 1, 2015, through September 30, 2017. METHODS: We obtained counts and proportions of all musculoskeletal diagnosis codes used and the number of unique patients with each musculoskeletal diagnosis. Diagnosis use was compared between primary and specialty care settings. RESULTS: Of more than 6,400 possible ICD-10 M-codes describing "Diseases of the Musculoskeletal System and Connective Tissue," 5,723 codes were used at least once. The most frequently used ICD-10 M-code was "Low Back Pain" (18.3%), followed by "Cervicalgia" (3.6%). Collectively, the 100 most frequently used codes accounted for 80% of M-coded visit diagnoses, and 95% of patients had at least one of these diagnoses. The most common diagnoses (spinal pain, joint pain, osteoarthritis) were used similarly in primary and specialty care settings. CONCLUSION: A diverse sample of all available musculoskeletal diagnosis codes were used; however, less than 2% of all possible codes accounted for 80% of the diagnoses used. This trend was consistent across primary and specialty care settings. The most frequently used diagnosis codes describe the types of musculoskeletal conditions, among a large pool of potential diagnoses, that prompt veterans to present to the Veterans Health Administration for musculoskeletal care.

Incorporating walking into cognitive behavioral therapy for chronic pain: safety and effectiveness of a personalized walking intervention.

We examined the effectiveness and safety of a walking program offered as part of cognitive behavioral therapy for chronic pain (CBT-CP). Participants were randomized to 10 weeks of CBT-CP, delivered either in person or by interactive voice response. Participants reported pedometer-measured step counts daily throughout treatment and received a weekly goal to increase their steps by 10% over the prior week's average. Walking-related adverse events (AEs) were assessed weekly. Participants (n = 125) were primarily male (72%), and white (80%) with longstanding pain (median: 11 years). There was no significant difference between treatment groups in rate of change in daily steps, but there was a significant increase in steps from baseline to treatment termination in the combined study sample (1648 steps (95% CI 1063-2225)). Participants classified as active doubled. AEs were mostly minor and temporary. Treatment was effective and safe whether the program was delivered in-person or remotely.Trial registration number: clinicaltrials.gov identifier: NCT01025752.

Predictors of engagement in an internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy program for veterans with chronic low back pain.

Internet-based interventions for chronic pain have demonstrated efficacy and may address access barriers to care. Participant characteristics have been shown to affect engagement with these programs; however, limited information is available about the relationship between participant characteristics and engagement with internet-based programs for self-management of chronic pain. The current study examined relationships between demographic and clinical characteristics and engagement with the Pain EASE program, a self-directed, internet-based cognitive behavioral therapy intervention for veterans with chronic low back pain (cLBP). Veterans with cLBP were enrolled in a 10 week trial of the Pain EASE program. Engagement measures included the number of logins, access to coping skill modules, and completed study staff-initiated weekly check-in calls. Regression analyses were conducted to identify significant predictors of engagement from hypothesized predictors (e.g., race/ethnicity, age, depressive symptom severity, and pain interference). Participants (N = 58) were 93% male, 60.3% identified as White, and had a mean age of 54.5 years. Participants logged into the program a median of 3.5 times, accessed a median of 2 skill modules, and attended a median of 6 check-in calls. Quantile regression revealed that, at the 50th percentile, non-White-identified participants accessed fewer modules than White-identified participants (p = .019). Increased age was associated with increased module use (p = .001). No clinical characteristics were significantly associated with engagement measures. White-identified race/ethnicity and increased age were associated with greater engagement with the Pain EASE program. Results highlight the importance of defining and increasing engagement in internet-delivered pain care.

Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment for Pain Management for Veterans Seeking Service-Connection Payments for Musculoskeletal Disorders: SBIRT-PM Study Protocol.

BACKGROUND: Veterans with significant chronic pain from musculoskeletal disorders are at risk of substance misuse. Veterans whose condition is the result of military service may be eligible for a disability pension. Department of Veterans Affairs compensation examinations, which determine the degree of disability and whether it was connected to military service, represent an opportunity to engage Veterans in pain management and substance use treatments. A multisite randomized clinical trial is testing the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of Screening, Brief Intervention, and Referral to Treatment for Pain Management (SBIRT-PM) for Veterans seeking compensation for musculoskeletal disorders. This telephone-based intervention is delivered through a hub-and-spoke configuration. DESIGN: This study is a two-arm, parallel-group, 36-week, multisite randomized controlled single-blind trial. It will randomize 1,100 Veterans experiencing pain and seeking service-connection for musculoskeletal disorders to either SBIRT-PM or usual care across eight New England VA medical centers. The study balances pragmatic with explanatory methodological features. Primary outcomes are pain severity and number of substances misused. Nonpharmacological pain management and substance use services utilization are tracked in the trial. SUMMARY: Early trial enrollment targets were met across sites. SBIRT-PM could help Veterans, at the time of their compensation claims, use multimodal pain treatments and reduce existing substance misuse. Strategies to address COVID-19 pandemic impacts on the SBIRT-PM protocol have been developed to maintain its pragmatic and exploratory integrity.

Co-Operative Pain Education and Self-management (COPES) Expanding Treatment for Real-World Access (ExTRA): Pragmatic Trial Protocol.

BACKGROUND: Given access barriers to cognitive behavioral therapy for chronic pain (CBT-CP), this pragmatic superiority trial will determine whether a remotely delivered CBT-CP intervention that addresses these barriers outperforms in-person and other synchronous forms of CBT-CP for veterans with musculoskeletal pain. DESIGN: This pragmatic trial compares an asynchronous form of CBT-CP that uses interactive voice response (IVR) to allow patients to participate from their home (IVR CBT-CP) with synchronous CBT-CP delivered by a Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) clinician. Veterans (n=764; 50% male) with chronic musculoskeletal pain throughout nine VA medical centers will participate. The primary outcome is pain interference after treatment (4 months). Secondary outcomes, including pain intensity, depression symptom severity, sleep, self-efficacy, and global impression of change, are also measured after treatment. Where possible, outcomes are collected via electronic health record extraction, with remaining measures collected via IVR calls to maintain blinding. Quantitative and qualitative process evaluation metrics will be collected to evaluate factors related to implementation. A budget impact analysis will be performed. SUMMARY: This pragmatic trial compares the outcomes, cost, and implementation of two forms of CBT-CP as delivered in the real-world setting. Findings from the trial can be used to guide future policy and implementation efforts related to these interventions and their use in the health system. If one of the interventions emerges as superior, resources can be directed to this modality. If both treatments are effective, patient preferences and health care system factors will take precedence when making referrals. Implications of COVID-19 on treatment provision and trial outcomes are discussed.

Self-Efficacy for Adoption and Maintenance of Exercise Among Fibromyalgia Patients: A Pilot Study.

Objective. While multimodal treatment approaches for fibromyalgia (FM), incorporating exercise, have been found most effective, information about factors associated with exercise adoption and maintenance is lacking. Design, Setting, and Methods. Women veterans with FM (N = 19) completed an anonymous Internet survey measuring FM impact (FI), adoption of exercise behavior, and self-efficacy for exercise. Using classifications of behavior specified by the transtheoretical model, the self-efficacy of participants classified in the action or maintenance (AM) stages was compared with those in earlier stages (precontemplation through preparation) of exercise readiness. Multivariate analysis of variance analyses examined differences in FI domains by stage of change. Analysis of covariance examined whether exercise self-efficacy differed by stage of change while controlling for FI. Results. Higher levels of self-efficacy were detected among participants in the AM stages. Participants in the AM stages also reported higher levels of FI symptoms. After controlling for FI, self-efficacy did not differ significantly between the 2 groups; however the effect size was large (η2 = .11). Conclusions. Findings of this pilot study suggest a role for self-efficacy in exercise adoption and maintenance, even in the setting of higher FM symptoms. Replication of this study with a larger sample size is warranted.

Treatment of a Large Cohort of Veterans Experiencing Musculoskeletal Disorders with Spinal Cord Stimulation in the Veterans Health Administration: Veteran Characteristics and Outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: Spinal cord stimulator (SCS) implantation is used to treat chronic pain, including painful musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs). This study examined the characteristics and outcomes of veterans receiving SCSs in Veterans Health Administration (VHA) facilities. METHODS: The sample was drawn from the MSD Cohort and limited to three MSDs with the highest number of implants (N=815,475). There were 1490 veterans with these conditions who received SCS implants from 2000 to 2012, of which 95% (n=1414) had pain intensity numeric rating scale (NRS) data both pre- and post-implant. RESULTS: Veterans who were 35-44 years old, White, and married reported higher pain NRS ratings, had comorbid inclusion diagnoses, had no medical comorbidities, had a BMI 25-29.9, or had a depressive disorder diagnosis were more likely to receive an SCS. Veterans 55+ years old or with an alcohol or substance use disorder were less likely to receive an SCS. Over 90% of those receiving an SCS were prescribed opioids in the year prior to implant. Veterans who had a presurgical pain score ≥4 had a clinically meaningful decrease in their pain score in the year following their 90-day recovery period (Day 91-456) greater than expected by chance alone. Similarly, there was a significant decrease in the percent of veterans receiving opioid therapy (92.4% vs 86.6%, p<0.0001) and a significant overall decrease in opioid dose [morphine equivalent dose per day (MEDD) =26.48 vs MEDD=22.59, p<0.0003]. CONCLUSION: Results offer evidence of benefit for some veterans with the examined conditions. Given known risks of opioid therapy, the reduction is an important potential benefit of SCS implants.

The Relationship Between Body Mass Index and Pain Intensity Among Veterans with Musculoskeletal Disorders: Findings from the MSD Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and pain intensity among veterans with musculoskeletal disorder diagnoses (MSDs; nontraumatic joint disorder; osteoarthritis; low back, back, and neck pain). SETTING: Administrative and electronic health record data from the Veterans Health Administration (VHA). SUBJECTS: A national cohort of US military veterans with MSDs in VHA care during 2001-2012 (N = 1,759,338). METHODS: These cross-sectional data were analyzed using hurdle negative binomial models of pain intensity as a function of BMI, adjusted for comorbidities and demographics. RESULTS: The sample had a mean age of 59.4, 95% were male, 77% were white/Non-Hispanic, 79% were overweight or obese, and 42% reported no pain at index MSD diagnosis. Overall, there was a J-shaped relationship between BMI and pain (nadir = 27 kg/m2), with the severely obese (BMI ≥ 40 kg/m2) being most likely to report any pain (OR vs normal weight = 1.23, 95% confidence interval = 1.21-1.26). The association between BMI and pain varied by MSD, with a stronger relationship in the osteoarthritis group and a less pronounced relationship in the back and low back pain groups. CONCLUSIONS: There was a high prevalence of overweight/obesity among veterans with MSD. High levels of BMI (>27 kg/m2) were associated with increased odds of pain, most markedly among veterans with osteoarthritis.

Internet-Based Pain Self-Management for Veterans: Feasibility and Preliminary Efficacy of the Pain EASE Program.

OBJECTIVE: To develop and test the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of a cognitive behavioral therapy-based, internet-delivered self-management program for chronic low back pain (cLBP) in veterans. METHODS: Phase I included program development, involving expert panel and participant feedback. Phase II was a single-arm feasibility and preliminary efficacy study of the Pain e-health for Activity, Skills, and Education (Pain EASE) program. Feasibility (ie, website use, treatment credibility, satisfaction) was measured using descriptive methods. Mixed models were used to assess mean within-subject changes from baseline to 10 weeks post-baseline in pain interference (primary outcome, West Haven-Yale Multidimensional Pain Inventory, scale of 0 to 6), pain intensity, mood, fatigue, sleep, and depression. RESULTS: Phase I participants (n = 15) suggested modifications including style changes, content reduction, additional "Test Your Knowledge" quizzes, and cognitive behavioral therapy skill practice monitoring form revisions for enhanced usability. In Phase II, participants (n = 58) were mostly male (93%) and White (60%), and had an average age of 55 years (standard deviation [SD] = 12) and moderate pain (mean score 5.9/10); 41 (71%) completed the post-baseline assessment. Participants (N = 58) logged on 6.1 (SD = 8.6) times over 10 weeks, and 85% reported being very or moderately satisfied with Pain EASE. Pain interference improved from a mean of 3.8 at baseline to 3.3 at 10 weeks (difference 0.5 [95% confidence interval 0.1 to 0.9], P = 0.008). Within-subject improvement also occurred for some secondary outcomes, including mood and depression symptoms. DISCUSSION: Veterans with cLBP may benefit from technology-delivered interventions, which may also reduce pain interference. Overall, veterans found that Pain EASE, an internet-based self-management program, is feasible and satisfactory for cLBP.