The contribution and interplay of implicit and explicit processes on physical activity behavior: empirical testing of the physical activity adoption and maintenance (PAAM) model.

The adoption and maintenance of physical activity (PA) is an important health behavior. This paper presents the first comprehensive empirical test of the Physical Activity Adoption and Maintenance (PAAM) model, which proposes that a combination of explicit (e.g., intention) and implicit (e.g., habit,, affect) self-regulatory processes is involved in PA adoption and maintenance. Data were collected via online questionnaires in English, German, and Italian at two measurement points four weeks apart. The study included 422 participants (Mage= 25.3, SDage= 10.1; 74.2% women) from Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Canada, and the U.S. The study results largely supported the assumptions of the PAAM model, indicating that intentions and habits significantly mediate the effects of past PA on future PA. In addition, the effect of past PA on future PA was shown to be significant through a mediation chain involving affect and habit. Although the hypothesis that trait self-regulation moderates the intention-behavior relationship was not supported, a significant moderating effect of affect on the same relationship was observed. The results suggest that interventions targeting both explicit and implicit processes may be effective in promoting PA adoption and maintenance.

WiN-Reha-effectiveness and durability of effects of orthopedic rehabilitation programs and the study of psychological determinants of aftercare behaviors: a study protocol.

Background and aim: Rehabilitation programs have been shown to have a positive impact on patients' health and work ability. However, the durability of these effects and the extent to which patients alter their health behaviors remain underexplored. This study is divided into two parts; the first assesses the effectivity of rehabilitation programs for orthopedic patients and the durability of effects. The second part examines psychological determinants of aftercare health behaviors. Subject and methods: Study Part 1 employs a longitudinal study design with up to nine measurement occasions encompassing a three-year follow-up period. Treatment is provided as per orthopedic indications through rehabilitation centers. Measures include subjective health, work ability, body weight, and physical activity behavior. Study Part 2 incorporates a mixed-methods design, involving both quantitative and qualitative assessments. The quantitative component aims to recruit a subsample from Study Part 1 to assess psychological determinants of aftercare health behaviors over 12 to 24 weeks using Ambulatory Assessment. The qualitative component aims to explore the reasons for maintenance and discontinuation of health behaviors and involves a reflexive thematic analysis of interviews with at least 16 individuals, analyzing the differences between those who adopt and those who discontinue their aftercare health behavior. Discussion: This comprehensive research project may offer insights into the long-term effectivity of rehabilitation programs. Furthermore, it may foster a more profound understanding of the successful incorporation of health-promoting aftercare behaviors, such as physical activity, into everyday life. Therefore, this study may contribute significantly to the evolving field of patient-centered rehabilitation. Trial registration: The trial has been registered at the German Register of Clinical Studies (DRKS) with the registration number: DRKS00032257.

The Success Factors of Rest Defense in Soccer - A Mixed-Methods Approach of Expert Interviews, Tracking Data, and Machine Learning.

While the tactical behavior of soccer players differs between specific phases of play (offense, defense, offensive transition, defensive transition), little is known about successful behavior of players during defensive transition (switching behavior from offense to defense). Therefore, this study aims to analyze the group tactic of rest defense (despite in ball possession, certain players safeguard quick counterattacks in case of ball loss) in defensive transition. A mixed-methods approach was used, involving both qualitative and quantitative analysis. Semi-structured expert interviews with seven professional soccer coaches were conducted to define rest defense. In the quantitative analysis, several KPIs were calculated, based on tracking and event data of 153 games of the 2020/21 German Bundesliga season, to predict the success of rest defense situations in a machine learning approach. The qualitative interviews indicated that rest defense can be defined as the positioning of the deepest defenders during ball possession to prevent an opposing counterattack after a ball loss. For instance, the rest defending players created a numerical superiority of 1.69 ± 1.00 and allowed a space control of the attacking team of 11.51 ± 9.82 [%] in the area of rest defense. The final machine learning model showed satisfactory prediction performance of the success of rest defense (Accuracy: 0.97, Precision: 0.73, f1-Score: 0.64, AUC: 0.60). Analysis of the individual KPIs revealed insights into successful behavior of players in rest defense, including controlling deep spaces and dangerous counterattackers. The study concludes regaining possession as fast as possible after a ball loss is the most important success factor in defensive transition.

The recognition of affective states associated with players' non-verbal behavior in volleyball.

The visible non-verbal behavior of volleyball players after a point might indicate their affective state. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether the point outcome (i.e., win vs. loss) and the importance of the situation (i.e., first vs. fifth set) influence how well the affective states (indexed through non-verbal behavior) can be recognized. For this purpose, 111 participants were presented 60 video excerpts showing the non-verbal behavior of volleyball teams immediately after a rally and asked whether the shown team had just won or lost a point. The results indicated that the recognition rate was significantly higher for won (80.09%) than for lost points (65.56%) as well as for points of the fifth set (77.84%) than for points of the first set (68.51%). Furthermore, an explorative analysis showed that the recognition rate was significantly higher for won points of the fifth set (89.19%) than for those of the first set (72.13%).

Is ball-possession style more physically demanding than counter-attacking? The influence of playing style on match performance in professional soccer.

In soccer, the offensive style of play describes characteristic behavioral features of the players at team level during the offensive phase of matches. This study aimed to investigate the effect of offensive playing style (i.e., while in ball possession) on physical and technical match performance during offensive play as well as success-related factors. The sample consisted of official tracking and event data of 153 matches of the 2020/21 German Bundesliga season. For every team in every match an offensive playing style coefficient was calculated to locate teams on a continuum between ball possession and counter-attacking style. This calculation contains 11 technical and physical performance parameters and has already been validated. In addition, dependent physical (e.g., sprinting distance), technical (e.g., passes), and success-related (e.g., goals) variables were examined. A separate linear mixed model was calculated for each dependent variable. While teams with lower playing style coefficient values (= counter-attacking style) covered more high-intensity (p ≤ 0.01; R2 = 0.13) and sprinting distances per second in possession (p ≤ 0.01; R2 = 0.14), teams with higher playing style coefficient values (= ball possession style) were physically more demanded over a whole match (e.g., more accelerations (p ≤ 0.01; R2 = 0.69), decelerations (p ≤ 0.01; R2 = 0.69), high-intensity (p ≤ 0.01; R2 = 0.36), sprint distance (p = 0.03; R2 = 0.08)). Furthermore, teams with higher playing style coefficient values played more horizontal passes (p ≤ 0.01; R2 = 0.73) and revealed better passing success rates (p ≤ 0.01; R2 = 0.17). In contrast, teams with lower playing style coefficient values played more long passes (p < 0.01; R2 = 0.58). The influence of the playing style coefficient on success-related variables was smaller (p ≤ 0.36; R2 = 0.10-0.13). Concluding, offensive playing style affects physical and technical match performance, but has limited influence on success. Hence, coaches can use the findings to optimize training contents to prepare players for the physical demands of a match.

A tool to assess fitness among adults in public health studies - Predictive validity of the FFB-Mot questionnaire.

BACKGROUND: Fitness has important implications for physical activity behavior and is associated with various health-related outcomes. It can be assessed through a test battery or a self-reported questionnaire. One example is the FFB-Mot (Funktionsfragebogen Motorik; engl. functional fitness questionnaire) which consist of 28 items to assess four components of fitness in adults: cardiorespiratory fitness/ endurance, muscular strength, gross motor coordination, and flexibility. The aims of this manuscript were to (1) provide an English-version of the FFB-Mot questionnaire (developed from the German-version using translation and back-translation) to the international community of researchers in the areas of physical activity, fitness and health in adults, and (2) examine the predictive validity of the FFB-Mot questionnaire in a large sample of community-dwelling adults. METHODS: We used data from a longitudinal study in Germany with four measurement waves over a period of 18 years, with samples ranging between 310 and 437 participants (1572 adults in total, mean ages 46-58 years). To assess predictive validity, we calculated Pearson correlations between FFB-Mot data collected in 1997 and external health-related criteria (i.e., subjective health status, physician-rated health status, back pain, physical complaints and physical activity in minutes per week) collected in 2002, 2010, and 2015, and separately for males and females. RESULTS: We observed correlations between higher FFB-Mot scores with better subjective health status (in 2002: males, r = 0.25; females, r = 0.18; in 2010: males, r = 0.29; females, r = 0.28; in 2015: males, r = 0.40), and higher physical activity (in 2002: males, r = 0.24; females, r = 0.25; in 2010: males, r = 0.30; females, r = 0.38; in 2015: females, r = 0.27). Higher FFB-Mot scores were also correlated with lower back pain (in 2002: males, r = -0.23; females, r = -0.25; in 2010: females, r = -0.22), less physical complaints (in 2002: males, r = -0.36; females, r = -0.24), and better physician-rated health status (in 2002: males, r = -0.41; females, r = -0.29, 2010: males, r = -0.38; females, r = -0.44; in 2015: males, r = -0.47). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the FFB-Mot to assess fitness in adults has predictive validity for health-related outcomes as indicated by significant correlations, albeit some effect sizes are small. The FFB-Mot may be used as one-time assessment of self-reported fitness, or for repeated testing to assess change of self-reported fitness over time and in different settings (e.g., public health research).

Can You Tell Who Scores? An Assessment of the Recognition of Affective States Based on the Nonverbal Behavior of Amateur Tennis Players in Competitive Matches.

The purpose of the present study was to assess whether the recognition of tennis players' affective state associated with their nonverbal behavior would be influenced by (a) the importance of the situation, (b) the point outcome, and (c) the tennis expertise of the observer. Two hundred sixty-nine participants (Mage = 30.51 years; 116 female; 79 tennis club members) watched video excerpts showing the nonverbal behavior of amateur tennis players during competitive matches immediately after the end of a rally and were asked to estimate whether the player had just won or lost the point. Results indicate that the recognition rates were higher for situations closer to the end of a game, closer to the end of a set, and with a tighter score during a game. Moreover, recognition rates were higher for lost than for won points, while the tennis expertise of participants had no influence on the recognition rates.

Longitudinal associations between physical activity and five risk factors of metabolic syndrome in middle-aged adults in Germany.

BACKGROUND: We examined the longitudinal association between (change in) physical activity (PA) with new onset of five risk factors of metabolic syndrome among 657 middle-aged adults (mean age 44.1 (standard deviation (SD) 8.6) years) who were free of the respective outcome at baseline, in a longitudinal cohort study spanning over 29 years. METHODS: Levels of habitual PA and sports-related PA were assessed by a self-reported questionnaire. Incident elevated waist circumference (WC), elevated triglycerides (TG), reduced high-density lipoprotein cholesterols (HDL), elevated blood pressure (BP), and elevated blood-glucose (BG) were assessed by physicians and by self-reported questionnaires. We calculated Cox proportional hazard ratio regressions and 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS: Over time, participants developed (cases of incident risk factor; mean (SD) follow-up time) elevated WC (234 cases; 12.3 (8.2) years), elevated TG (292 cases; 11.1 (7.8) years), reduced HDL (139 cases; 12.4 (8.1) years), elevated BP (185 cases; 11.4 (7.5) years), or elevated BG (47 cases; 14.2 (8.5) years). For PA variables at baseline, risk reductions ranging between 37 and 42% for reduced HDL levels were detected. Furthermore, higher levels of PA (≥ 16.6 METh per week) were associated with a 49% elevated risk for incident elevated BP. Participants who increased PA levels over time, had risk reductions ranging between 38 and 57% for elevated WC, elevated TG and reduced HDL. Participants with stable high amounts of PA from baseline to follow-up had risk reductions ranging between 45 and 87% for incident reduced HDL and elevated BG. CONCLUSIONS: PA at baseline, starting PA engagement, maintaining and increasing PA level over time are associated with favorable metabolic health outcomes.

Mid- and Late-Life Physical Activity and Neuropsychiatric Symptoms in Dementia-Free Older Adults: Mayo Clinic Study of Aging.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined associations between physical activity (PA) and neuropsychiatric symptoms (NPS) in older adults free of dementia. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 3,222 individuals ≥70 years of age (1,655 men; mean±SD age=79.2±5.6; cognitively unimpaired, N=2,723; mild cognitive impairment, N=499) from the population-based Mayo Clinic Study of Aging. PA (taken as a presumed predictor) in midlife (i.e., when participants were 50-65 years of age) and late life (i.e., the year prior to assessment) was assessed with a self-reported, validated questionnaire; PA intensity and frequency were used to calculate composite scores. NPS (taken as presumed outcomes) were assessed with the Neuropsychiatric Inventory Questionnaire, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II), and Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI). Regression analyses included midlife and late-life PA in each model, which were adjusted for age, sex, education, apolipoprotein E ɛ4 status, and medical comorbidity. RESULTS: Higher late-life PA was associated with lower odds of having apathy (OR=0.89, 95% CI=0.84-0.93), appetite changes (OR=0.92, 95% CI=0.87-0.98), nighttime disturbances (OR=0.95, 95% CI=0.91-0.99), depression (OR=0.94, 95% CI=0.90-0.97), irritability (OR=0.93, 95% CI=0.89-0.97), clinical depression (OR=0.92, 95% CI=0.88-0.97), and clinical anxiety (OR=0.90, 95% CI=0.86-0.94), as well as lower BDI-II (ß estimate=-0.042, 95% CI=-0.051 to -0.033) and BAI (ß estimate=-0.030, 95% CI=-0.040 to -0.021) scores. Higher midlife PA was associated only with higher BDI-II scores (ß estimate=0.011, 95% CI=0.004 to 0.019). Sex modified the associations between PA and NPS. CONCLUSIONS: Late-life PA was associated with a lower likelihood of clinical depression or anxiety and subclinical NPS. These findings need to be confirmed in a cohort study.

Examining the relation between emotional experiences and emotional expressions in competitive tennis matches.

Introduction: Emotions consist of different components such as the emotional experience, physiological reactions, action tendencies, or emotional expressions. Assessing the relation of these components may help to better understand the role of emotions in sport competitions. Based on the component process model of emotions, the goal of the present study was to assess the relation between emotional experiences and emotional expressions. Methods: Twenty tennis players (7 female) with an average age of 23.10 (SD = 4.88) were taped during competitive tennis matches. Thereafter, in individual meetings, after having watched themselves on the footage at pre-selected points, the players had to indicate whether, immediately after the end of a rally, they had a positive or a negative emotional experience and, in case they had one, rate its intensity. Moreover, based on their observable behavior, the players were also asked to state whether they could recognize a positive or a negative emotional expression and, in case they recognized one, rate its intensity. The occurrence of emotional expressions was additionally rated by two external coders. Using multilevel models, separate analyses were conducted for positive emotions after won points and negative emotions after lost points. Results and discussion: For both positive and negative emotions, the results indicated a positive correlation between emotional experiences and emotional expressions. Moreover, the intensity of emotional experiences could predict the occurrence of an emotional expression rated by both the players or external coders. These insights into the relation between emotional experiences and emotional expressions may help players to more effectively regulate their emotions.

The keys of pressing to gain the ball - Characteristics of defensive pressure in elite soccer using tracking data.

Recently, the availability of big amounts of data enables analysts to dive deeper into the constraints of performance in various team sports. While offensive analyses in football have been extensively conducted, the evaluation of defensive performance is underrepresented in this sport. Hence, the aim of this study was to analyze successful defensive playing phases by investigating the space and time characteristics of defensive pressure.Therefore, tracking and event data of 153 games of the German Bundesliga (second half of 2020/21 season) were assessed. Defensive pressure was measured in the last 10 seconds of a defensive playing sequence (time characteristic) and it was distinguished between pressure on the ball-carrier, pressure on the group (5 attackers closest to the ball), and pressure on the whole team (space characteristic). A linear mixed model was applied to evaluate the effect of success of a defensive play (ball gain), space characteristic, and time characteristic on defensive pressure.Defensive pressure is higher in successful defensive plays (14.47 ± 16.82[%]) compared to unsuccessful defensive plays (12.87 ± 15.31[%]). The characteristics show that defensive pressure is higher in areas closer to the ball (space characteristic) and the closer the measurement is to the end of a defensive play (time characteristic), which is especially true for successful defensive plays. Defensive pressure is a valuable key performance indicator for defensive play. Further, this study shows that there is an association between the pressing of the ball-carrier and areas close to the ball with the success of defensive play.

A Study on the Psychometric Properties of the Short Version of the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale in an Adult Population.

A new measure of the short form of the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale (PACES-S), including four items, has been developed that focuses on the subjective experience of enjoyment. As validation has so far only been conducted in a youth population, the purpose of the present article was to test the psychometric properties of the measure in an adult population in three studies. In the first study (n = 1017) the results supported the unidimensional structure of the instrument (χ2 = 10.0; df = 2; p < 0.01; CFI = 0.992; RMSEA = 0.063), revealed a satisfactory level of internal consistency (ω = 0.79), and showed that the measure is invariant across gender. The results on factorial validity and internal consistency were generally supported by the second study (n = 482), which additionally showed satisfactory test-retest reliability (r = 0.73). Finally, the third study (n = 1336) also supported the factorial validity and internal consistency of the measure and additionally showed a positive correlation with physical activity (r = 0.40), thus supporting the criterion-related validity of the measure. This more economical version of PACES seems to be particularly useful for large-scale studies.

Longitudinal association between physical activity and the risk of incident metabolic syndrome in middle-aged adults in Germany.

We examined the longitudinal association between physical activity (PA) and the risk of incident metabolic syndrome (MetS) among middle-aged, community-dwelling adults, including 591 individuals (314 females; mean (SD) age, 43.8 (8.5) years) who were free of MetS at baseline. Habitual and sports-related PA was assessed by a self-reported questionnaire. MetS was defined based on HDL-cholesterols, triglycerides, glucose or HbA1c, blood pressure, and waist circumference. We calculated Cox proportional hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) using regression analyses. Over a mean follow-up of 12.5 years, 205 participants developed incident MetS. Four different sports-related PA measures were associated with a decreased risk of incident MetS: (1) Engaging in ≥ 75 min/week (HR 0.71, 95% CI 0.53-0.94), (2) maintaining a continuously high amount from baseline to follow-up of ≥ 75 min/week (HR 0.66, 95% CI 0.46-0.94), (3) starting from < 150 min/week at baseline to ≥ 150 min/week at follow-up (HR 0.65, 95% CI 0.45-0.94), and (4) increasing from < 16.6 MET-hours/week at baseline to ≥ 16.6 MET-hours/week at follow-up (HR 0.47, 95% CI 0.31-0.71). Thus, maintaining, starting or increasing sports-related PA is associated with a lower risk of incident MetS.

Investigating the relation between positive affective responses and exercise instigation habits in an affect-based intervention for exercise trainers: A longitudinal field study.

The present study contains an affect-based intervention intended to support exercise trainers in positively influencing their course participants' affective responses to their exercise courses. We argue that positive affective responses are associated with habit formation, thereby being a promising approach for avoiding high drop-out rates in exercise courses. First, the present study aimed to investigate whether the intervention for exercise trainers could increase (a) affective attitudes, and (b) exercise instigation habit strength, and influence the development of (c) weekly measured affective responses and (d) automaticity among adult participants of exercise courses. Second, it examined the relationship between the development of affective responses and exercise instigation habit strength. Ten exercise trainers of weekly sports and exercise courses at a German university received either an affect-based intervention or a control intervention. 132 of their course participants answered the Self-Report Habit Index (SRHI; the automaticity sub-scale SRBAI was also analyzed) for exercise instigation habit strength and items to measure affective attitude in the initial and final assessment. Moreover, they were assessed for a duration of 10 weeks during which, each time after attending the course, they reported their affective response to exercise as well as their automaticity in arriving at the decision to exercise. In the repeated measures ANOVA, there was a significant main effect of time for exercise instigation habit strength. Overall, habit strength was higher in the final than in the initial assessment. However, there were no significant differences between the two conditions in all study variables. In the latent growth curve model, the trajectory of the latent growth curve of valence was a significant predictor of the final exercise instigation habit strength. While the applied affect-based intervention was not successful in enhancing positive affective responses to exercise, the results indicate that positive affective responses may contribute to strengthening exercise instigation habits. Future studies should examine the effectiveness of interventions in long-term study designs.

Examining the role of affective states in relation to exercise intentions and participation in extra-curricular exercise classes at university: A repeated measurement observational study.

Background: Previous research has shown evidence on the role of affective states for physical activity behavior. However, there is a lack of research investigating the interplay between affective states, intentions, and exercise behavior, especially with respect to maintaining regular exercise over time. The study aimed to investigate whether post-exercise affective states and changes in affect during exercise (i) are related to exercise intentions; (ii) moderate the relationship between intention and subsequent exercise behavior, and (iii) directly predict future exercise. Methods: Participants from weekly voluntary sports and gym classes at two universities were recruited. For 13 weeks, 268 individuals' (M age = 24.5 years, SD = 5.6, 90% students, 67.4% female) class attendance was documented on a weekly basis. Before and immediately after training, participants self-reported affective states, including affective valence (Feeling Scale) and perceived arousal (Felt Arousal Scale). Participants also reported their intention to re-attend the class the following week. Mixed-effect linear models and Cox proportional hazard models were used to examine the relationships between affective states, change in affective states, re-attendance intentions, and class re-attention. Results: Affective valence at the end of training was significantly positively associated with the intention to re-attend the class on the within-person level (ß = 0.880, p < 0.001) as well as the between-person level (ß = 0.831, p < 0.001), while higher increases of valence during class were related to smaller intention. For class re-attendance, significant effects of affective states were only found on the within-person level. A one-point increase on the valence scale increased the hazard ratio to re-attend by 8.4% (p < 0.05), but this effect was no longer meaningful after adjusting for intention. No moderation of the relationship between intention and subsequent class re-attendance was found. Conclusion: The results suggest that positive affective state immediately after exercise does not facilitate translation of intentions into subsequent exercise behavior (i.e., do not close the intention-behavior gap). Rather, affective valence was found to be an important predictor of exercise intentions but seemed indirectly related to behavior via intentions. Practitioners should plan exercise programs that allow for positive affective states especially at the end of a training.

Effectiveness of Physical-Activity-Based Interventions Targeting Overweight and Obesity among University Students-A Systematic Review.

Overweight and obesity, including their prevalence and consequences, reflect a leading public health problem. Studies have already shown that physical activity leads to a reduction in body weight in children and adults. However, the university setting has rarely been investigated. The aim of this review is, therefore, to examine and summarize the effectiveness of physical-activity-based interventions to reduce obesity and overweight in university students. Three databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) were searched for relevant studies published in English between January 2010 and February 2022. Quantitative studies conducting a physical-activity-based intervention with overweight or obese university students and reporting changes in BMI were included. Data were described in a narrative synthesis. Out of 16 included studies, 11 reported a significant reduction in BMI. However, all studies except one were able to demonstrate some BMI improvements, whereas all studies reported significant changes in at least one health-related indicator. Aerobic exercises were able to demonstrate the greatest reductions in BMI. This review is the first systematic presentation on the effectiveness of physical-activity-based interventions in overweight and obese university students. Future work should reconsider BMI as the primary outcome if appropriate within the respective study design (i.e., to measure long-term effects). More interventions are needed to improve strategies.

Anticipatory and Anticipated Emotions in Regular and Non-regular Exercisers - A Qualitative Study.

Future-oriented emotions could influence our decisions in everyday life and help understand why some individuals are physically active whilst others are not. Current literature distinguishes between two future-oriented emotion constructs: anticipatory and anticipated emotions. While anticipatory emotions are currently experienced emotions about a future event, anticipated emotions refer to the emotions that a person is expected to experience when confronted with a future event. The main aims of the present study were (1) to identify and describe (a) categories of anticipatory emotions experienced before exercise, and (b) categories of anticipated emotions expected to be experienced during and after exercise, and (2) to develop a theoretical model of anticipated emotion categories. Sixteen participants (M age = 26.03, SD = 6.66) were recruited for semi-structured interviews, and their statements were analyzed using principles of the Grounded Theory. In total, 13 different anticipatory and anticipated emotion categories were identified, such as enjoyment, anxiety, pride, self-anger, and relief. Anticipatory emotions seem to reflect the current affective valence of exercising and may be influenced by daily factors. With regards to anticipated emotions, the results show that regular exercisers anticipated also negative emotions such as anxiety, disappointment, and self-anger, and non-regular exercisers also anticipated positive emotions such as enjoyment, pride, and satisfaction. Therefore, future research should not only focus on the valence of future-oriented emotions, but should investigate the possible impact of specific anticipated emotions on exercise behavior. In addition, a theoretical model of anticipated emotion categories in exercise behavior derived from the interviews. The model outlines different categories of anticipated emotions based on appraisal processes. In conclusion, we assume that this developmental process of anticipated emotions may be embedded in a broader, cyclical process within the context of exercising.

How Coaches Can Improve Their Teams' Match Performance-The Influence of In-Game Changes of Tactical Formation in Professional Soccer.

The tactical formation has been shown to influence the match performance of professional soccer players. This study aimed to examine the effects of in-game changes in tactical formation on match performance and to analyze coach-specific differences. We investigated three consecutive seasons of an elite team in the German Bundesliga which were managed by three different coaches, respectively. For every season, the formation changes that occurred during games were recorded. The match performance was measured on a team level using the variables "goals," "chances," and "scoring zone" entries (≙successful attacking sequence) for the own/opposing team. Non-parametric tests were used to compare the 10 min before with the 10 min after the formation change, as well as games with and without formation change. In the 10 min after the formation change, the team achieved more goals/chances/scoring zone entries than in the 10 min before the formation change (mean ES = 0.52). Similarly, the team conceded fewer opposing goals/chances/scoring zone entries in the 10 min after the formation change (mean ES = 0.35). Furthermore, the results indicate that the success of the respective formation change was dependent on the responsible coach. Depending on the season, the extent of the impacts varied (season 1: mean ES = 0.71; season 2: mean ES = 0.26; and season 3: mean ES = 0.22). Over all three seasons, the formation changes had a positive effect on the match performance of the analyzed team, highlighting their importance in professional soccer. Depending on the season, formation changes had varying impacts on the performance, indicating coach-specific differences. Therefore, the quality of the formation changes of the different coaches varied. The provided information can support coaches in understanding the effects of their in-game decisions.

Does Technical Match Performance in Professional Soccer Depend on the Positional Role or the Individuality of the Player?

The aim of the study was to examine the impact of the positional role and the individuality on the technical match performance in professional soccer players. From official match data of the Bundesliga season 2018/19, technical performance [short (<10 m)/medium (10-30 m)/long (>30 m) passes, dribblings, ball possessions] of all players who played during the season were analyzed (normative data). Five playing positions (center back, full back, central midfielder, wide midfielder and forward) were distinguished. As the contextual factor tactical formation is known to influence match performance, this parameter was controlled for. Further, those players who played at minimum four games in at least two different playing positions were included in the study sample (n = 13). The technical match performance of the players was analyzed in relation to the normative data regarding the extent to which the players either adapted or maintained their performance when changing the playing position. When switching playing positions, positional role could explain 3-6% of the variance in short passes and ball possessions and 27-44% of the variance in dribblings, medium passes, and long passes. Moreover, we observed large interindividual differences in the extent to which a player changed, adapted, or maintained his performance. In detail, five players clearly adapted their technical performance when changing playing positions, while five players maintained their performance. Coaches can use these findings to better understand the technical match performance of single players and further, to estimate the impact of a change in the positional role on the technical performance of the respective player.

Center backs work hardest when playing in a back three: The influence of tactical formation on physical and technical match performance in professional soccer.

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether tactical formation affects the physical and technical match performance of professional soccer players in the first German Bundesliga. From official match data of the Bundesliga season 2018/19, physical (total distance, high-intensity distance, sprinting distance, accelerations, maximum velocity) and technical performance (short/middle/long passes, dribblings, ball-possessions) of players were analyzed. Players were categorized into five playing positions (center back, full back, central midfielder, wide midfielder, forward) and teams into eight different tactical formations (4-4-2, 4-4-2 diamond, 4-2-2-2, 4-3-3, 4-5-1, 4-2-3-1, 3-4-3, 3-5-2). Results revealed that the degree to which tactical formation affects match performance is position dependent. In terms of physical performance, center backs and full backs showed highest sprinting distances when playing in a formation with only three defenders in the back row (3-4-3, 3-5-2) compared to all other formations (ES range: 0.13≤ES≤1.27). Regarding technical performance, all positions except forwards displayed fewer short passes, middle passes and ball-possessions in the formations 4-3-3 and 4-2-3-1 compared to all other formations (0.02≤ES≤1.19). In conclusion, physical and technical performance of center backs, full backs and wide midfielders differed markedly between the tactical formations. Conversely, the physical and technical performance of central midfielders and forwards only showed small differences between the different tactical formations. These findings can help coaches scheduling their practice. For example, if a coach wants to change the playing formation, he can anticipate the physical and technical match performance changes depending on the respective playing position.