Executive Function and Impulsivity Predict Distinct Genetic Variance in Internalizing Problems, Externalizing Problems, Thought Disorders, and Compulsive Disorders: A Genomic Structural Equation Modeling Study.

Individual differences in self-control predict many health and life outcomes. Building on twin literature, we used genomic structural equation modeling to test the hypothesis that genetic influences on executive function and impulsivity predict independent variance in mental health and other outcomes. The impulsivity factor (comprising urgency, lack of premeditation, and other facets) was only modestly genetically correlated with low executive function (rg =.13). Controlling for impulsivity, low executive function was genetically associated with increased internalizing (ßg =.15), externalizing (ßg =.13), thought disorders (ßg =.38), compulsive disorders (ßg =.22), and chronotype (ßg =.11). Controlling for executive function, impulsivity was positively genetically associated with internalizing (ßg =.36), externalizing (ßg =.55), body mass index (ßg =.26), and insomnia (ßg =.35), and negatively genetically associated with compulsive disorders (ßg = -.17). Executive function and impulsivity were both genetically correlated with general cognitive ability and educational attainment. This work suggests that executive function and impulsivity are genetically separable and show independent associations with mental health.

Genome-wide association studies of lifetime and frequency cannabis use in 131,895 individuals.

Cannabis is one of the most widely used drugs globally. Decriminalization of cannabis is further increasing cannabis consumption. We performed genome-wide association studies (GWASs) of lifetime (N=131,895) and frequency (N=73,374) of cannabis use. Lifetime cannabis use GWAS identified two loci, one near CADM2 (rs11922956, p=2.40E-11) and another near GRM3 (rs12673181, p=6.90E-09). Frequency of use GWAS identified one locus near CADM2 (rs4856591, p=8.10E-09; r2 =0.76 with rs11922956). Both traits were heritable and genetically correlated with previous GWASs of lifetime use and cannabis use disorder (CUD), as well as other substance use and cognitive traits. Polygenic scores (PGSs) for lifetime and frequency of cannabis use associated cannabis use phenotypes in AllofUs participants. Phenome-wide association study of lifetime cannabis use PGS in a hospital cohort replicated associations with substance use and mood disorders, and uncovered associations with celiac and infectious diseases. This work demonstrates the value of GWASs of CUD transition risk factors.

Genome-wide association studies of coffee intake in UK/US participants of European ancestry uncover cohort-specific genetic associations.

Coffee is one of the most widely consumed beverages. We performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of coffee intake in US-based 23andMe participants (N = 130,153) and identified 7 significant loci, with many replicating in three multi-ancestral cohorts. We examined genetic correlations and performed a phenome-wide association study across hundreds of biomarkers, health, and lifestyle traits, then compared our results to the largest available GWAS of coffee intake from the UK Biobank (UKB; N = 334,659). We observed consistent positive genetic correlations with substance use and obesity in both cohorts. Other genetic correlations were discrepant, including positive genetic correlations between coffee intake and psychiatric illnesses, pain, and gastrointestinal traits in 23andMe that were absent or negative in the UKB, and genetic correlations with cognition that were negative in 23andMe but positive in the UKB. Phenome-wide association study using polygenic scores of coffee intake derived from 23andMe or UKB summary statistics also revealed consistent associations with increased odds of obesity- and red blood cell-related traits, but all other associations were cohort-specific. Our study shows that the genetics of coffee intake associate with substance use and obesity across cohorts, but also that GWAS performed in different populations could capture cultural differences in the relationship between behavior and genetics.

A phenome-wide association and Mendelian randomisation study of alcohol use variants in a diverse cohort comprising over 3 million individuals.

BACKGROUND: Alcohol consumption is associated with numerous negative social and health outcomes. These associations may be direct consequences of drinking, or they may reflect common genetic factors that influence both alcohol consumption and other outcomes. METHODS: We performed exploratory phenome-wide association studies (PheWAS) of three of the best studied protective single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in genes encoding ethanol metabolising enzymes (ADH1B: rs1229984-T, rs2066702-A; ADH1C: rs698-T) using up to 1109 health outcomes across 28 phenotypic categories (e.g., substance-use, mental health, sleep, immune, cardiovascular, metabolic) from a diverse 23andMe cohort, including European (N ≤ 2,619,939), Latin American (N ≤ 446,646) and African American (N ≤ 146,776) populations to uncover new and perhaps unexpected associations. These SNPs have been consistently implicated by both candidate gene studies and genome-wide association studies of alcohol-related behaviours but have not been investigated in detail for other relevant phenotypes in a hypothesis-free approach in such a large cohort of multiple ancestries. To provide insight into potential causal effects of alcohol consumption on the outcomes significant in the PheWAS, we performed univariable two-sample and one-sample Mendelian randomisation (MR) analyses. FINDINGS: The minor allele rs1229984-T, which is protective against alcohol behaviours, showed the highest number of PheWAS associations across the three cohorts (N = 232, European; N = 29, Latin American; N = 7, African American). rs1229984-T influenced multiple domains of health. We replicated associations with alcohol-related behaviours, mental and sleep conditions, and cardio-metabolic health. We also found associations with understudied traits related to neurological (migraines, epilepsy), immune (allergies), musculoskeletal (fibromyalgia), and reproductive health (preeclampsia). MR analyses identified evidence of causal effects of alcohol consumption on liability for 35 of these outcomes in the European cohort. INTERPRETATION: Our work demonstrates that polymorphisms in genes encoding alcohol metabolising enzymes affect multiple domains of health beyond alcohol-related behaviours. Understanding the underlying mechanisms of these effects could have implications for treatments and preventative medicine. FUNDING: MVJ, NCK, SBB, SSR and AAP were supported by T32IR5226 and 28IR-0070. SSR was also supported by NIDA DP1DA054394. NCK and RBC were also supported by R25MH081482. ASH was supported by funds from NIAAA K01AA030083. JLMO was supported by VA 1IK2CX002095. JLMO and JJMM were also supported by NIDA R21DA050160. JJMM was also supported by the Kavli Postdoctoral Award for Academic Diversity. EGA was supported by K01MH121659 from the NIMH/NIH, the Caroline Wiess Law Fund for Research in Molecular Medicine and the ARCO Foundation Young Teacher-Investigator Fund at Baylor College of Medicine. MSA was supported by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III and co-funded by the European Union Found: Fondo Social Europeo Plus (FSE+) (P19/01224, PI22/00464 and CP22/00128).

Multi-ancestry meta-analysis of tobacco use disorder identifies 461 potential risk genes and reveals associations with multiple health outcomes.

Tobacco use disorder (TUD) is the most prevalent substance use disorder in the world. Genetic factors influence smoking behaviours and although strides have been made using genome-wide association studies to identify risk variants, most variants identified have been for nicotine consumption, rather than TUD. Here we leveraged four US biobanks to perform a multi-ancestral meta-analysis of TUD (derived via electronic health records) in 653,790 individuals (495,005 European, 114,420 African American and 44,365 Latin American) and data from UK Biobank (ncombined = 898,680). We identified 88 independent risk loci; integration with functional genomic tools uncovered 461 potential risk genes, primarily expressed in the brain. TUD was genetically correlated with smoking and psychiatric traits from traditionally ascertained cohorts, externalizing behaviours in children and hundreds of medical outcomes, including HIV infection, heart disease and pain. This work furthers our biological understanding of TUD and establishes electronic health records as a source of phenotypic information for studying the genetics of TUD.

Genome-Wide Association Studies of Coffee Intake in UK/US Participants of European Ancestry Uncover Gene-Cohort Influences.

Coffee is one of the most widely consumed beverages. We performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of coffee intake in US-based 23andMe participants (N=130,153) and identified 7 significant loci, with many replicating in three multi-ancestral cohorts. We examined genetic correlations and performed a phenome-wide association study across thousands of biomarkers and health and lifestyle traits, then compared our results to the largest available GWAS of coffee intake from UK Biobank (UKB; N=334,659). The results of these two GWAS were highly discrepant. We observed positive genetic correlations between coffee intake and psychiatric illnesses, pain, and gastrointestinal traits in 23andMe that were absent or negative in UKB. Genetic correlations with cognition were negative in 23andMe but positive in UKB. The only consistent observations were positive genetic correlations with substance use and obesity. Our study shows that GWAS in different cohorts could capture cultural differences in the relationship between behavior and genetics.

Multivariate genome-wide association meta-analysis of over 1 million subjects identifies loci underlying multiple substance use disorders.

Genetic liability to substance use disorders can be parsed into loci that confer general or substance-specific addiction risk. We report a multivariate genome-wide association meta-analysis that disaggregates general and substance-specific loci for published summary statistics of problematic alcohol use, problematic tobacco use, cannabis use disorder, and opioid use disorder in a sample of 1,025,550 individuals of European descent and 92,630 individuals of African descent. Nineteen independent SNPs were genome-wide significant (P < 5e-8) for the general addiction risk factor (addiction-rf), which showed high polygenicity. Across ancestries, PDE4B was significant (among other genes), suggesting dopamine regulation as a cross-substance vulnerability. An addiction-rf polygenic risk score was associated with substance use disorders, psychopathologies, somatic conditions, and environments associated with the onset of addictions. Substance-specific loci (9 for alcohol, 32 for tobacco, 5 for cannabis, 1 for opioids) included metabolic and receptor genes. These findings provide insight into genetic risk loci for substance use disorders that could be leveraged as treatment targets.

CADM2 is implicated in impulsive personality and numerous other traits by genome- and phenome-wide association studies in humans and mice.

Impulsivity is a multidimensional heritable phenotype that broadly refers to the tendency to act prematurely and is associated with multiple forms of psychopathology, including substance use disorders. We performed genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of eight impulsive personality traits from the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale and the short UPPS-P Impulsive Personality Scale (N = 123,509-133,517 23andMe research participants of European ancestry), and a measure of Drug Experimentation (N = 130,684). Because these GWAS implicated the gene CADM2, we next performed single-SNP phenome-wide studies (PheWAS) of several of the implicated variants in CADM2 in a multi-ancestral 23andMe cohort (N = 3,229,317, European; N = 579,623, Latin American; N = 199,663, African American). Finally, we produced Cadm2 mutant mice and used them to perform a Mouse-PheWAS ("MouseWAS") by testing them with a battery of relevant behavioral tasks. In humans, impulsive personality traits showed modest chip-heritability (~6-11%), and moderate genetic correlations (rg = 0.20-0.50) with other personality traits, and various psychiatric and medical traits. We identified significant associations proximal to genes such as TCF4 and PTPRF, and also identified nominal associations proximal to DRD2 and CRHR1. PheWAS for CADM2 variants identified associations with 378 traits in European participants, and 47 traits in Latin American participants, replicating associations with risky behaviors, cognition and BMI, and revealing novel associations including allergies, anxiety, irritable bowel syndrome, and migraine. Our MouseWAS recapitulated some of the associations found in humans, including impulsivity, cognition, and BMI. Our results further delineate the role of CADM2 in impulsivity and numerous other psychiatric and somatic traits across ancestries and species.

Multi-ancestry meta-analysis of tobacco use disorder prioritizes novel candidate risk genes and reveals associations with numerous health outcomes.

Tobacco use disorder (TUD) is the most prevalent substance use disorder in the world. Genetic factors influence smoking behaviors, and although strides have been made using genome-wide association studies (GWAS) to identify risk variants, the majority of variants identified have been for nicotine consumption, rather than TUD. We leveraged five biobanks to perform a multi-ancestral meta-analysis of TUD (derived via electronic health records, EHR) in 898,680 individuals (739,895 European, 114,420 African American, 44,365 Latin American). We identified 88 independent risk loci; integration with functional genomic tools uncovered 461 potential risk genes, primarily expressed in the brain. TUD was genetically correlated with smoking and psychiatric traits from traditionally ascertained cohorts, externalizing behaviors in children, and hundreds of medical outcomes, including HIV infection, heart disease, and pain. This work furthers our biological understanding of TUD and establishes EHR as a source of phenotypic information for studying the genetics of TUD.

Identifying High-Risk Comorbidities Associated with Opioid Use Patterns Using Electronic Health Record Prescription Data.

Introduction: Opioid use disorders (OUDs) constitute a major public health issue, and we urgently need alternative methods for characterizing risk for OUD. Electronic health records (EHRs) are useful tools for understanding complex medical phenotypes but have been underutilized for OUD because of challenges related to underdiagnosis, binary diagnostic frameworks, and minimally characterized reference groups. As a first step in addressing these challenges, a new paradigm is warranted that characterizes risk for opioid prescription misuse on a continuous scale of severity, i.e., as a continuum. Methods: Across sites within the PsycheMERGE network, we extracted prescription opioid data and diagnoses that co-occur with OUD (including psychiatric and substance use disorders, pain-related diagnoses, HIV, and hepatitis C) for over 2.6 million patients across three health registries (Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Mass General Brigham, Geisinger) between 2005 and 2018. We defined three groups based on levels of opioid exposure: no prescriptions, minimal exposure, and chronic exposure and then compared the comorbidity profiles of these groups to the full registries and to those with OUD diagnostic codes. Results: Our results confirm that EHR data reflects known higher prevalence of substance use disorders, psychiatric disorders, medical, and pain diagnoses in patients with OUD diagnoses and chronic opioid use. Comorbidity profiles that distinguish opioid exposure are strikingly consistent across large health systems, indicating the phenotypes described in this new quantitative framework are robust to health systems differences. Conclusion: This work indicates that EHR prescription opioid data can serve as a platform to characterize complex risk markers for OUD using existing data.

Genome-wide association study in individuals of European and African ancestry and multi-trait analysis of opioid use disorder identifies 19 independent genome-wide significant risk loci.

Despite the large toll of opioid use disorder (OUD), genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of OUD to date have yielded few susceptibility loci. We performed a large-scale GWAS of OUD in individuals of European (EUR) and African (AFR) ancestry, optimizing genetic informativeness by performing MTAG (Multi-trait analysis of GWAS) with genetically correlated substance use disorders (SUDs). Meta-analysis included seven cohorts: the Million Veteran Program, Psychiatric Genomics Consortium, iPSYCH, FinnGen, Partners Biobank, BioVU, and Yale-Penn 3, resulting in a total N = 639,063 (Ncases = 20,686;Neffective = 77,026) across ancestries. OUD cases were defined as having a lifetime OUD diagnosis, and controls as anyone not known to meet OUD criteria. We estimated SNP-heritability (h2SNP) and genetic correlations (rg). Based on genetic correlation, we performed MTAG on OUD, alcohol use disorder (AUD), and cannabis use disorder (CanUD). A leave-one-out polygenic risk score (PRS) analysis was performed to compare OUD and OUD-MTAG PRS as predictors of OUD case status in Yale-Penn 3. The EUR meta-analysis identified three genome-wide significant (GWS; p ≤ 5 × 10-8) lead SNPs-one at FURIN (rs11372849; p = 9.54 × 10-10) and two OPRM1 variants (rs1799971, p = 4.92 × 10-09; rs79704991, p = 1.11 × 10-08; r2 = 0.02). Rs1799971 (p = 4.91 × 10-08) and another OPRM1 variant (rs9478500; p = 1.95 × 10-08; r2 = 0.03) were identified in the cross-ancestry meta-analysis. Estimated h2SNP was 12.75%, with strong rg with CanUD (rg = 0.82; p = 1.14 × 10-47) and AUD (rg = 0.77; p = 6.36 × 10-78). The OUD-MTAG resulted in a GWAS Nequivalent = 128,748 and 18 independent GWS loci, some mapping to genes or gene regions that have previously been associated with psychiatric or addiction phenotypes. The OUD-MTAG PRS accounted for 3.81% of OUD variance (beta = 0.61;s.e. = 0.066; p = 2.00 × 10-16) compared to 2.41% (beta = 0.45; s.e. = 0.058; p = 2.90 × 10-13) explained by the OUD PRS. The current study identified OUD variant associations at OPRM1, single variant associations with FURIN, and 18 GWS associations in the OUD-MTAG. The genetic architecture of OUD is likely influenced by both OUD-specific loci and loci shared across SUDs.

Item-Level Genome-Wide Association Study of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test in Three Population-Based Cohorts.

OBJECTIVE: Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), a 10-item screen for alcohol use disorder (AUD), have elucidated novel loci for alcohol consumption and misuse. However, these studies also revealed that GWASs can be influenced by numerous biases (e.g., measurement error, selection bias), which may have led to inconsistent genetic correlations between alcohol involvement and AUD, as well as paradoxically negative genetic correlations between alcohol involvement and psychiatric disorders and/or medical conditions. The authors used genomic structural equation modeling to elucidate the genetics of alcohol consumption and problematic consequences of alcohol use as measured by AUDIT. METHODS: To explore these unexpected differences in genetic correlations, the authors conducted the first item-level and the largest GWAS of AUDIT items (N=160,824) and applied a multivariate framework to mitigate previous biases. RESULTS: The authors identified novel patterns of similarity (and dissimilarity) among the AUDIT items and found evidence of a correlated two-factor structure at the genetic level ("consumption" and "problems," rg=0.80). Moreover, by applying empirically derived weights to each of the AUDIT items, the authors constructed an aggregate measure of alcohol consumption that was strongly associated with alcohol dependence (rg=0.67), moderately associated with several other psychiatric disorders, and no longer positively associated with health and positive socioeconomic outcomes. Lastly, by conducting polygenic analyses in three independent cohorts that differed in their ascertainment and prevalence of AUD, the authors identified novel genetic associations between alcohol consumption, alcohol misuse, and health. CONCLUSIONS: This work further emphasizes the value of AUDIT for both clinical and genetic studies of AUD and the importance of using multivariate methods to study genetic associations that are more closely related to AUD.

Genome-wide association study of problematic opioid prescription use in 132,113 23andMe research participants of European ancestry.

The growing prevalence of opioid use disorder (OUD) constitutes an urgent health crisis. Ample evidence indicates that risk for OUD is heritable. As a surrogate (or proxy) for OUD, we explored the genetic basis of using prescription opioids 'not as prescribed'. We hypothesized that misuse of opiates might be a heritable risk factor for OUD. To test this hypothesis, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of problematic opioid use (POU) in 23andMe research participants of European ancestry (N = 132,113; 21% cases). We identified two genome-wide significant loci (rs3791033, an intronic variant of KDM4A; rs640561, an intergenic variant near LRRIQ3). POU showed positive genetic correlations with the two largest available GWAS of OUD and opioid dependence (rg = 0.64, 0.80, respectively). We also identified numerous additional genetic correlations with POU, including alcohol dependence (rg = 0.74), smoking initiation (rg = 0.63), pain relief medication intake (rg = 0.49), major depressive disorder (rg = 0.44), chronic pain (rg = 0.42), insomnia (rg = 0.39), and loneliness (rg = 0.28). Although POU was positively genetically correlated with risk-taking (rg = 0.38), conditioning POU on risk-taking did not substantially alter the magnitude or direction of these genetic correlations, suggesting that POU does not simply reflect a genetic tendency towards risky behavior. Lastly, we performed phenome- and lab-wide association analyses, which uncovered additional phenotypes that were associated with POU, including respiratory failure, insomnia, ischemic heart disease, and metabolic and blood-related biomarkers. We conclude that opioid misuse can be measured in population-based cohorts and provides a cost-effective complementary strategy for understanding the genetic basis of OUD.

Universality and diversity in human song.

What is universal about music, and what varies? We built a corpus of ethnographic text on musical behavior from a representative sample of the world's societies, as well as a discography of audio recordings. The ethnographic corpus reveals that music (including songs with words) appears in every society observed; that music varies along three dimensions (formality, arousal, religiosity), more within societies than across them; and that music is associated with certain behavioral contexts such as infant care, healing, dance, and love. The discography-analyzed through machine summaries, amateur and expert listener ratings, and manual transcriptions-reveals that acoustic features of songs predict their primary behavioral context; that tonality is widespread, perhaps universal; that music varies in rhythmic and melodic complexity; and that elements of melodies and rhythms found worldwide follow power laws.