The dentition: the outcomes of morphogenesis leading to variations of tooth number, size and shape.

The clinical importance of variations of tooth number, size and shape is seen in many dental disciplines. Early diagnosis allows optimal patient management and treatment planning, with intervention at an appropriate time to prevent complications in development and so reduce later treatment need. Understanding the process of dental morphogenesis and the variations in outcomes is an important contribution to the multidisciplinary clinical team approach to treatment. Tooth number, size and shape are determined during the initiation and morphogenetic stages of odontogenesis. The molecular evidence of repetitive signalling throughout initiation and morphogenesis is reflected clinically in the association of anomalies of number, size and shape. This association has been statistically modelled from epidemiological evidence and confirmed by 2D and 3D measurement of human dental study casts. In individuals with hypodontia, the teeth that are formed are smaller than the population mean and often show reduced and simplified shape. In contrast, in individuals with supernumerary teeth, the other teeth are larger than average and may show an enhanced shape. Clinical observations in humans and studies of laboratory animals gave rise to the concept of morphogenetic fields within the dentition. The findings, which can also be considered as reflecting gene expression territories, have been developed to incorporate field, clone and homeobox theories. The clinical distribution of developmental anomalies tends to follow the pattern of these fields or territories. Improved care for patients with these anomalies will come not only from utilizing a multidisciplinary clinical team but also by expanding the approach to include other relevant scientific disciplines.

Enamel knots as signaling centers linking tooth morphogenesis and odontoblast differentiation.

Odontoblasts differentiate from the cells of the dental papilla, and it has been well-established that their differentiation in developing teeth is induced by the dental epithelium. In experimental studies, no other mesenchymal cells have been shown to have the capacity to differentiate into odontoblasts, indicating that the dental papilla cells have been committed to odontoblast cell lineage during earlier developmental stages. We propose that the advancing differentiation within the odontoblast cell lineage is regulated by sequential epithelial signals. The first epithelial signals from the early oral ectoderm induce the odontogenic potential in the cranial neural crest cells. The next step in the determination of the odontogenic cell lineage is the development of the dental papilla from odontogenic mesenchyme. The formation of the dental papilla starts at the onset of the transition from the bud to the cap stage of tooth morphogenesis, and this is regulated by epithelial signals from the primary enamel knot. The primary enamel knot is a signaling center which forms at the tip of the epithelial tooth bud. It becomes fully developed and morphologically discernible in the cap-stage dental epithelium and expresses at least ten different signaling molecules belonging to the BMP, FGF, Hh, and Wnt families. In molar teeth, secondary enamel knots appear in the enamel epithelium at the sites of the future cusps. They also express several signaling molecules, and their formation precedes the folding and growth of the epithelium. The differentiation of odontoblasts always starts from the tips of the cusps, and therefore, it is conceivable that some of the signals expressed in the enamel knots may act as inducers of odontoblast differentiation. The functions of the different signals in enamel knots are not precisely known. We have shown that FGFs stimulate the proliferation of mesenchymal as well as epithelial cells, and they may also regulate the growth of the cusps. We have proposed that the enamel knot signals also have important roles, together with mesenchymal signals, in regulating the patterning of the cusps and hence the shape of the tooth crown. We suggest that the enamel knots are central regulators of tooth development, since they link cell differentiation to morphogenesis.

Genotype, phenotype, and developmental biology of molar tooth characters.

Primate molar shapes reflect developmental and ecological processes. Development may constrain as well as facilitate evolution of new tooth shapes, affecting how reliable dental characters are in phylogenetic studies. Much of the genetic machinery of development uses the same genes among different organs, including teeth, limbs, and feathers. Furthermore, within a tooth, the development of individual cusps repeatedly uses the same set of developmental genes, forming a "developmental module." The repeated activation of the developmental module can explain the cumulative variation in later-developing cusps. Therefore short, later-developing cusps may be evolvable but also more homoplastic. This patterning cascade mode of cusp development can be used to explain the variational properties of dental characters and character states related to cusp initiation. The developmental basis and variational properties of crown termination, cusp shape, and cusp configuration characters are currently less well understood. It is unlikely that there is a simple "gene to phenotype" map for dental characters. Rather, the whole cusp pattern is a product of a dynamic developmental program manifested in the activation of the developmental modules.

Evolutionary modification of development in mammalian teeth: quantifying gene expression patterns and topography.

The study of mammalian evolution often relies on detailed analysis of dental morphology. For molecular patterning to play a role in dental evolution, gene expression differences should be linkable to corresponding morphological differences. Because teeth, like many other structures, are complex and evolution of new shapes usually involves subtle changes, we have developed topographic methods by using Geographic Information Systems. We investigated how genetic markers for epithelial signaling centers known as enamel knots are associated with evolutionary divergence of molar teeth in two rodent species, mouse and vole. Our analysis of expression patterns of Fgf4, Lef1, p21, and Shh genes in relation to digital elevation models of developing tooth shapes shows that molecular prepatterns predict the lateral cusp topography more than a day in advance. A heterotopic shift in the molecular prepatterns can be implicated in the evolution of mouse molar, changing locations from which historically homologous cusps form. The subtle but measurable heterotopic shifts may play a large role in the evolution of tooth cusp topographies. However, evolutionary increase in the number of longitudinal cusps in vole molar has involved accelerated longitudinal growth and iterative addition of new cusps without changes in lateral cusp topography. The iterative addition of cusps after the establishment of lateral cusp topography may limit the independence of individual morphological features used in evolutionary studies. The diversity of mammalian molar patterns may largely result from the heterotopic and iterative processes.

Linking development with generation of novelty in mammalian teeth.

The evolution of mammalian teeth is characterized by the frequent and convergent evolution of new cusps. The evolution of new cusps can be linked to tooth development via population-level variation. This allows testing whether development increases the capacity to evolve, or evolvability, by facilitating and even directing morphological change. In a population sample of living seals, variation in cusp number of individual teeth is from three to five cusps, the variably present cusps being the shortest ones that also develop last. By factoring in recent evidence on development, I show that the variation in cusp number can be explained by a patterning cascade mode of cusp development that cumulatively increases and directs height variation in short cusps. The biased variation in seal tooth cusps supports the recognition of teeth as highly evolvable because only small developmental changes are needed to produce large changes in size and number of small cusps. This evolvability of tooth cusps may have facilitated the fast and independent acquisition of new cusps in mammalian evolution. In phylogenetic studies, small cusps may be unreliable as phylogenetic signals. Population level variation can be a powerful tool in testing and generating hypotheses in developmental evolution studies.

Reiterative signaling and patterning during mammalian tooth morphogenesis.

Mammalian dentition consists of teeth that develop as discrete organs. From anterior to posterior, the dentition is divided into regions of incisor, canine, premolar and molar tooth types. Particularly teeth in the molar region are very diverse in shape. The development of individual teeth involves epithelial-mesenchymal interactions that are mediated by signals shared with other organs. Parts of the molecular details of signaling networks have been established, particularly in the signal families BMP, FGF, Hh and Wnt, mostly by the analysis of gene expression and signaling responses in knockout mice with arrested tooth development. Recent evidence suggests that largely the same signaling cascade is used reiteratively throughout tooth development. The successional determination of tooth region, tooth type, tooth crown base and individual cusps involves signals that regulate tissue growth and differentiation. Tooth type appears to be determined by epithelial signals and to involve differential activation of homeobox genes in the mesenchyme. This differential signaling could have allowed the evolutionary divergence of tooth shapes among the four tooth types. The advancing tooth morphogenesis is punctuated by transient signaling centers in the epithelium corresponding to the initiation of tooth buds, tooth crowns and individual cusps. The latter two signaling centers, the primary enamel knot and the secondary enamel knot, have been well characterized and are thought to direct the differential growth and subsequent folding of the dental epithelium. Several members of the FGF signal family have been implicated in the control of cell proliferation around the non-dividing enamel knots. Spatiotemporal induction of the secondary enamel knots determines the cusp patterns of individual teeth and is likely to involve repeated activation and inhibition of signaling as suggested for patterning of other epithelial organs.

Gene expression patterns associated with suppression of odontogenesis in mouse and vole diastema regions.

Rodents have a toothless diastema region between the incisor and molar teeth which may contain rudimentary tooth germs. We found in upper diastema region of the mouse (Mus musculus) three small tooth germs which developed into early bud stage before their apoptotic removal, while the sibling vole (Microtus rossiaemeridionalis) had only a single but larger tooth germ in this region, and this developed into late bud stage before regressing apoptotically. To analyze the genetic mechanisms of the developmental arrest of the rudimentary tooth germs we compared the expression patterns of several developmental regulatory genes (Bmp2, Bmp4, Fgf4, Fgf8, Lef1, Msx1, Msx2, p21, Pitx2, Pax9 and Shh) between molars and diastema buds of mice and voles. In diastema tooth buds the expression of all the genes differed from that of molars. The gene expression patterns suggest that the odontogenic program consists of partially independent signaling cascades which define the exact location of the tooth germ, initiate epithelial budding, and transfer the odontogenic potential from the epithelium to the underlying mesenchyma. Although the diastema regions of the two species differed, in both species the earliest difference that we found was weaker expression of mesenchymal Pax9 in the diastema region than in molar and incisor regions at the dental lamina stage. However, based on earlier tissue recombination experiments it is conceivable that the developmental arrest is determined by the early oral epithelium.

Cusp patterning defect in Tabby mouse teeth and its partial rescue by FGF.

Tabby is a mouse mutant characterized by deficient development of the ectodermal organs: teeth, hair, and a subset of glands. Ectodysplasin, the protein encoded by the Tabby gene, was recently identified as a novel TNF-like transmembrane protein but little is known about its function. We have examined the Tabby tooth phenotype in detail by analysis of the adult and embryonic teeth. Tabby first molars had an obvious defect in cusp patterning as the number of cusps was reduced and the buccal and lingual cusps were joined. The disturbance in development was first visible morphologically in the bud stage molar. The primary enamel knot in a cap stage Tabby tooth expressed all enamel knot markers analyzed but was smaller than wild type and the first pair of developing secondary enamel knots was fused. We propose that the Tabby tooth phenotype is due to growth retardation during early stages of development which leads to reduced signaling from the primary enamel knot, followed by deficient growth of the dental epithelium and lack of formation of the last developing secondary enamel knots. The ectodysplasin transcripts were expressed in the outer enamel epithelium and dental lamina. When cultured in vitro Tabby bud/cap stage molars formed fewer cusps than wild-type controls. This phenotype was not rescued by exogenously added EGF despite the previously proposed link between Tabby and EGF. Instead FGF-10 partially restored morphogenesis and stimulated the development of additional tooth cusps in cultured Tabby molars.

Association of developmental regulatory genes with the development of different molar tooth shapes in two species of rodents.

While the evolutionary history of mammalian tooth shapes is well documented in the fossil record, the developmental basis of their tooth shape evolution is unknown. We investigated the expression patterns of eight developmental regulatory genes in two species of rodents with different molar morphologies (mouse, Mus musculus and sibling vole, Microtus rossiaemeridionalis). The genes Bmp-2, Bmp-4, Fgf-4 and Shh encode signal molecules, Lef-1, Msx-1 and Msx-2, are transcription factors and p21CIP1/WAF1 participates in the regulation of cell cycle. These genes are all known to be associated with developmental regulation in mouse molars. In this paper we show that the antisense mRNA probes made from mouse cDNA cross-hybridized with vole tissue. The comparisons of gene expression patterns and morphologies suggest that similar molecular cascades are used in the early budding of tooth germs, in the initiation of tooth crown base formation, and in the initiation of each cusp's development. Furthermore, the co-localization of several genes indicate that epithelial signalling centres function at the three stages of morphogenesis. The earliest signalling centre in the early budding epithelium has not been reported before, but the latter signalling centres, the primary and the secondary enamel knots, have been studied in mouse. The appearance of species-specific tooth shapes was manifested by the regulatory molecules expressed in the secondary enamel knots at the areas of future cusp tips, whilst the mesenchymal gene expression patterns had a buccal bias without similar species-specific associations.

Diversity components of impending primate extinctions.

Many extant species are at risk to go extinct. This impending loss of species is likely to cause changes in future ecosystem functions. Ecological components of diversity, such as dietary or habitat specializations, can be used to estimate the impact of extinctions on ecosystem functions. As an approach to estimate the impact of future extinctions, we tested interdependency between ecological and taxonomic change based on current predictions of extinction rates in primates. We analyzed the ecological characteristics of extant primate faunas having species in various categories of endangerment of extinction and forecasted the future primate faunas as if they were paleontological faunas. Predicting future faunas combines the wealth of ecological information on living primates with large, fossil record-like changes in diversity. Predicted extinction patterns of living primates in Africa, Asia, Madagascar, and South America show that changes in ecology differ among the regions in ways that are not reducible to taxonomic measures. The ecological effects of primate extinctions are initially least severe in South America and larger in Asia and Africa. Disproportionately larger ecological changes are projected for Madagascar. The use of taxonomy as a proxy for ecology can mislead when estimating competence of future primate ecosystems.

The life history of an embryonic signaling center: BMP-4 induces p21 and is associated with apoptosis in the mouse tooth enamel knot.

The enamel knot, a transient epithelial structure, appears at the onset of mammalian tooth shape development. Until now, the morphological, cellular and molecular events leading to the formation and disappearance of the enamel knot have not been described. Here we report that the cessation of cell proliferation in the enamel knot in mouse molar teeth is linked with the expression of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21. We show that p21 expression is induced by bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP-4) in isolated dental epithelia. As Bmp-4 is expressed only in the underlying dental mesenchyme at the onset of the enamel knot formation, these results support the role of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors as inducible cell differentiation factors in epithelial-mesenchymal interactions. Furthermore, we show that the expression of p21 in the enamel knot is followed by Bmp-4 expression, and subsequently by apoptosis of the differentiated enamel knot cells. Three-dimensional reconstructions of serial sections after in situ hybridization and Tunel-staining indicated an exact codistribution of Bmp-4 transcripts and apoptotic cells. Apoptosis was stimulated by BMP-4 in isolated dental epithelia, but only in one third of the explants. We conclude that Bmp-4 may be involved both in the induction of the epithelial enamel knot, as a mesenchymal inducer of epithelial cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors, and later in the termination of the enamel knot signaling functions by participating in the regulation of programmed cell death. These results show that the life history of the enamel knot is intimately linked to the initiation of tooth shape development and support the role of the enamel knot as an embryonic signaling center.

Molar tooth diversity, disparity, and ecology in Cenozoic ungulate radiations.

A classic example of adaptive radiation is the diversification of Cenozoic ungulates into herbivore adaptive zones. Their taxonomic diversification has been associated with changes in molar tooth morphology. Analysis of molar crown types of the Artiodactyla, Perissodactyla, and archaic ungulates ("Condylarthra") shows that the diversity of genera and crown types was high in the Eocene. Post-Eocene molars of intermediate crown types are rare, and thus the ungulate fauna contained more taxa having fewer but more disparate crown types. Taxonomic diversity trends alone give incomplete descriptions of adaptive radiations.

The enamel knot as a signaling center in the developing mouse tooth.

Mammalian tooth forms are produced during development by folding of the enamel epithelium but the molecular mechanisms involved in the formation and patterning of tooth cusps are not understood. We now report that several key signaling molecules found in well-known vertebrate signaling tissues such as the node, the notochord, the apical ectodermal ridge, and the zone of polarizing activity in the limb bud are specifically expressed in cells of the enamel knot, which is a transient cluster of dental epithelial cells. By comparing three-dimensional reconstructions of serial sections following in situ hybridization we localized Sonic hedgehog, Bone morphogenetic proteins-2, -4 and -7, as well as Fibroblast growth factor-4 in nested domains within the enamel knot. We suggest that the enamel knot acts as a signaling or organizing center, which provides positional information for tooth morphogenesis and regulates the growth of tooth cusps.

The hypocone as a key innovation in mammalian evolution.

The hypocone, a cusp added to the primitively triangular upper molar teeth of therian mammals, has evolved convergently > 20 times among mammals during the Cenozoic. Acquisition of the hypocone itself involves little phenotypic change, but subsequent diversification of groups possessing the hypocone may be greatly enhanced. Our analysis of the Cenozoic mammalian radiations, including the Recent fauna, shows that high species diversity of mammals with hypocones and association of the hypocone with herbivory strongly support recognition of the hypocone as a key innovation that has allowed invasion of, and diversification within, herbivorous adaptive zones. In contrast, mammals lacking hypocones show no marked increase in species diversity during the Cenozoic.

Evidence for the role of the enamel knot as a control center in mammalian tooth cusp formation: non-dividing cells express growth stimulating Fgf-4 gene.

The main morphological features of the mammalian tooth crown are cusps, but the developmental mechanisms that cause the formation of cusps are unknown. Tooth cusp formation commences at cap-stage with the appearance of the enamel knot, which is a cluster of non-dividing epithelial cells. In this study, enamel knot was first seen in embryonic mice molar teeth at the onset of cap-stage. Later in tooth development, secondary enamel knot structures were observed at the cusp tips and their appearance corresponded to the formation of individual cusp morphology. Comparisons of the pattern of cell proliferation in embryonic mouse molars and the expression of fibroblast growth factor-4 (Fgf-4) gene revealed that expression of Fgf-4 mRNA is strictly localized to the non-dividing cells of the enamel knot. However, when FGF-4 protein was introduced onto isolated dental tissues in vitro, it stimulated the proliferation of both dental epithelial and mesenchymal cells. Based on these results, we suggest that the enamel knot may control tooth morphogenesis by concurrently stimulating cusp growth (via FGF-4 synthesis) and by directing folding of cusp slopes (by not proliferating itself).

A chondroitin sulfate epitope in mammalian dental pulp and its developmental expression in mouse dental papilla.

The molecular specificity of the dental papilla of a bell-stage tooth was studied by production of dental-papilla-reactive monoclonal antibodies (Mabs). One of the Mabs, designated 7C5, recognized an epitope present in glycosaminoglycan. Several lines of evidence suggested that the 7C5-epitope consists of chondroitin 6-sulfate. The Mab did not react with mouse dental epithelium, but reacted uniformly with mesenchymal tissue in the mandibular process and accumulated in the dental sac and in the papilla of bell-stage tooth germs. The 7C5-staining was lost from the differentiating odontoblasts, while the staining in the molar tooth papilla was accumulated in the subodontoblastic layer. In the developing mouse incisor, the 7C5-epitope was restricted to the lingual-posterior area. The 7C5-epitope was also present in pulpal tissue and predentin of different types of teeth of various mammalian species, including man, sheep, swine, and rat. Collagenase pre-treatment of tissue sections abolished the bulk of the 7C5-reactivity in peridental mesenchyme during embryonic stages while leaving the staining of the dental papilla intact. In newborn and adult teeth, collagenase also impaired the reactivity in the pulp except for the subodontoblastic layer. This suggests the existence of different subpopulations of the 7C5-epitope containing proteoglycans in dental papilla and pulp. A high-molecular-weight proteoglycan, sensitive to chondroitinase ABC but not to heparinase or heparitinase, was immunoprecipitated by 7C5 from extracts of bell-stage mouse tooth germs. We suggest that the evolutionary conservation of chondroitin 6-sulfate in the dental pulp reflects its properties as non-terminally differentiated tissue and perhaps the retention of a potential to differentiate to odontoblasts.