Perinatal substance use treatment and criminal legal system referral trends.

INTRODUCTION: To guide improvements in treatment for pregnant persons with substance use disorders within the criminal legal system, treatment programs must first determine the primary substances of concern for this population. The objective of this study is to compare trends in specific substance use upon admission to treatment in pregnancy, based upon whether referrals originated from the criminal legal system or from another referral source. METHODS: This research accessed data on perinatal substance use (1995-2021) and referral sources from the Treatment Episode Data Set-Admissions (TEDS-A). Analyses use multiple logistic regressions to evaluate trends in primary substance use leading to treatment admission during pregnancy. RESULTS: Approximately 1 % (N = 536,948) of all substance use treatment admissions in TEDS-A were for pregnant people. Between 1995 and 2021, the percentage of treatment admissions increased for primary methamphetamine use (10 % to 27 %), primary opioid use (21 % to 38 %), and primary cannabis use (9 % to 18 %), and decreased for primary cocaine use (32 % to 6 %) and primary alcohol use (26 % to 11 %). By 2021, treatment admissions referred from criminal legal agencies were more likely to primarily be for primary methamphetamine use (33 % vs 25 %) and less likely to be for primary opioid use (22 % vs 42 %) compared to other referral sources. CONCLUSIONS: Trends in substance use treatment during pregnancy have changed substantially over the past few decades and emphasize the unique needs of patients referred to treatment by the criminal legal system. Treatment programs must therefore adapt to fluctuating trends in perinatal substance use. In particular, it is important to expand programs that prioritize treatment of methamphetamine use disorder for pregnant people referred through criminal legal agencies.

Extended-release buprenorphine in pregnancy.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The relative safety and efficacy of monthly extended-release buprenorphine (XR-BUP) has not been fully evaluated in pregnant persons. METHODS: Case report of two pregnant individuals receiving XR-BUP while pregnant. RESULTS: Both patients had positive experiences and healthy infants. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: Sparse data regarding the use of XR-BUP in pregnant patients limits shared decision-making. Additional evidence will support the growing population of pregnant patients exposed to XR-BUP. SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE: Positive patient experiences using XR-BUP during pregnancy have been previously unreported. This report will contribute to discussions of risks and benefits for future patients using XR-BUP during pregnancy.

Strengthening the System Supporting Perinatal People with Substance Use Disorder in the Midwest Using Group Model Building.

INTRODUCTION: Providing comprehensive, evidence-based care to perinatal people with substance use disorders (SUD) requires multi-stakeholder collaboration and alignment. The National Maternal and Child Health Workforce Development Center facilitated a system-strengthening process with the Midwest substance use in pregnancy (SUPper) club, a regional collaborative of health care providers, state public health agencies, and community-rooted organizations. METHODS: Facilitators led a 2 day group model building (GMB) workshop with 20 participants and two semi-structured interviews. Workshop participants were invited to complete an evaluation. RESULTS: Two primary trends were identified as priorities for change: (1) Birthing people's perception/experience of stigma and (2) The Midwest SUPper Club's reach and influence. Three causal loop diagrams (CLDs) were created to capture the interconnected dynamics of the Midwest perinatal SUD system: (1) the influence of stigma on maternal and infant health outcomes, (2) the role of clinic, organizational, and state policies, and (3) the impact of workforce education and evidence-based practices on care. From the CLDs, four priorities for action emerged: (1) align and promote shared mental models across stakeholders, (2) expand education and training opportunities for the perinatal SUD workforce, (3) strengthen systems infrastructure to support care navigation for patients and providers, and (4) collaboratively identify evidence-based practices that meet regional needs. All evaluation respondents reported that the workshop supported the development of a shared mental model. DISCUSSION: The GMB process strengthened collaboration and advanced strategic planning for the SUPper Club. GMB can be further utilized among diverse stakeholders across MCH systems to create shared mental models and accelerate collaborative planning efforts.

Behaviors, Beliefs, and Recommendations to Optimize Promotion of Safe Fish Consumption Before and During Pregnancy: A Physician Survey.

INTRODUCTION: Eating fish before and during pregnancy is important but care must be taken to choose fish which maximize developmental outcomes. Physicians, a trusted health information source, could provide this nuanced communication. This cross-sectional survey of a representative sample of 400 family medicine and obstetrics and gynecology (OB-GYN) physicians in Minnesota was designed to understand physician behaviors and beliefs about safe fish consumption, describe barriers to physician-patient conversations about safe fish consumption generally and as part of prenatal care and to identify resources to help facilitate conversations on this topic. METHODS: Data was collected January to April 2020. Two hundred nineteen surveys were completed (55% response rate) with 194 reporting seeing patients at least 1 day a week. Descriptive survey results from all were summarized and analyzed overall and by physician specialty. Responses to 3 open-ended questions were thematically coded to enrich the quantitative results. RESULTS: While 62% of these reported discussing nutrition topics, only about one-third reported discussing with patients the benefits and about one-quarter the risks of eating fish. Despite the relative infrequency of fish discussions, almost all (>90%) respondents agreed that it is important to discuss fish consumption with people who are or may become pregnant. The largest reported barrier to these conversations was time (82%), and the most endorsed resource to overcome identified barriers was talking points (72%). CONCLUSIONS: Because physicians report limited time, resources that facilitate fish consumption should be succinct while serving to both nudge the message and direct clinicians and their patients to robust information.

Improved Maternal and Infant Outcomes with Serial, Self-Reported Early Prenatal Substance Use Screening.

INTRODUCTION: Most screening tools identifying women with substance use are not validated, used once in pregnancy, and are not reflective of continued substance use. We hypothesized that serial early prenatal substance screening leads to decreased substance use by the end of pregnancy and improved outcomes. METHODS: This is a retrospective cohort study of mothers and their infants between 1/2015 and 12/2017. A self-reported substance screening tool was administered on the first prenatal visit and subsequent visits until delivery. For analysis, mothers were divided into three groups based on the trimester of their first screen and adjusted for demographics and risk factors. RESULTS: Early first trimester screening resulted in 52% of mothers having ≥ 3 screens throughout pregnancy vs. 6% of mothers with late third trimester screens (p < 0.001). Compared to third trimester screening, there was a five-fold decrease of any substance use at second trimester, a seven-fold decrease at first trimester, and a nine-fold decrease for marijuana at first trimester. Compared to third trimester screening, there was a significant five-fold increase of negative maternal urine drug screen, 3 ½ -fold increase in well newborn diagnosis, and a five-fold increase of no infant morphine treatment at first trimester. DISCUSSION: We identified improved maternal and infant outcomes with serial early prenatal substance use screening. Early maternal substance use identification is crucial for immediate referral for prevention and treatment, and for social and community services. Further research is needed on universal serial early prenatal screenings.

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) Antibodies in Neonatal Cord Blood After Vaccination in Pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: Studies evaluating the safety and efficacy of currently available vaccines for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) do not include pregnant participants. No data are available to counsel on vaccine safety and potential for neonatal passive immunity. CASE: A 34-year-old multigravid patient working in health care received the Pfizer-BioNTech (BNT162b2) mRNA vaccine for SARS-CoV-2 in the third trimester of pregnancy. Uncomplicated spontaneous vaginal delivery of a female neonate with Apgar scores of 9 and 9 occurred at term. The patient's blood as well as neonatal cord blood were evaluated for SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies. Both the patient and the neonate were positive for antibodies at a titer of 1:25,600. CONCLUSION: In this case, passage of transplacental antibodies for SARS-CoV-2 was shown after vaccination in the third trimester of pregnancy.

Missed opportunities to prevent cardiovascular disease in women with prior preeclampsia.

BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in women in every major developed country and in most emerging nations. Complications of pregnancy, including preeclampsia, indicate a subsequent increase in cardiovascular risk. There may be a primary care provider knowledge gap regarding preeclampsia as a risk factor for CVD. The objective of our study is to determine how often internists at an academic institution inquire about a history of preeclampsia, as compared to a history of smoking, hypertension and diabetes, when assessing CVD risk factors at well-woman visits. Additional aims were (1) to educate internal medicine primary care providers on the significance of preeclampsia as a risk factor for CVD disease and (2) to assess the impact of education interventions on obstetric history documentation and screening for CVD in women with prior preeclampsia. METHODS: A retrospective chart review was performed to identify women ages 18-48 with at least one prior obstetric delivery. We evaluated the frequency of documentation of preeclampsia compared to traditional risk factors for CVD (smoking, diabetes, and chronic hypertension) by reviewing the well-woman visit notes, past medical history, obstetric history, and the problem list in the electronic medical record. For intervention, educational teaching sessions (presentation with Q&A session) and education slide presentations were given to internal medicine physicians at clinic sites. Changes in documentation were evaluated post-intervention. RESULTS: When assessment of relevant pregnancy history was obtained, 23.6% of women were asked about a history preeclampsia while 98.9% were asked about diabetes or smoking and 100% were asked about chronic hypertension (p < 0.001). Education interventions did not significantly change rates of screening documentation (p = 0.36). CONCLUSION: Our study adds to the growing body of literature that women with a history of preeclampsia might not be identified as having increased CVD risk in the outpatient primary care setting. Novel educational programming may be required to increase provider documentation of preeclampsia history in screening.

Hospital care for opioid use disorder in pregnancy: Challenges and opportunities identified from a Minnesota survey.

OBJECTIVES: The prevalence of opioid use disorder continues to rise in the United States, with a simultaneous increase in the diagnosis of both opioid use disorder during pregnancy and neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome. Despite these increases in pregnancy-related care, little is known about hospital policy and policy implementation related to opioid use disorder in pregnancy. In addition, it is unknown whether policies might differ in rural or urban hospitals. To better examine these issues, Minnesota hospitals were surveyed regarding the existence and implementation of policies related to opioid use disorder in pregnancy and whether any policy implementation challenges had been identified. METHODS: From August to December 2017, the research team contacted all Minnesota hospitals that offered obstetric services (n = 82) to survey challenges to implementing policies for opioid use disorder during pregnancy, among other questions. Fifty-nine hospitals had respondents (primarily obstetric department supervisors) who provided information about policy implementation challenges for a 72% response rate. Qualitative responses were analyzed using qualitative description and according to hospital location: metropolitan (urban), micropolitan (rural), or non-core (rural). RESULTS: Ninety-one percent of respondents said that they had pregnancies affected by opioid use disorder at their hospital within the last year. Four major challenges to policy implementation were identified in qualitative responses: (1) provider consensus, (2) patient response to policy, (3) lack of resources, and (4) low frequency of occurrence. All four challenges were more frequently identified by respondents at rural hospitals compared to urban hospitals. CONCLUSION: This study identified challenges in standardizing hospital care for pregnancies affected by opioid use disorder, and these challenges were identified more frequently in rural locations. These non-urban hospitals may require increased state and federal support and funding.

Maternal Opioid Use Disorder and Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome Among Rural US Residents, 2007-2014.

PURPOSE: Opioid use disorder (OUD) during pregnancy is associated with poor maternal and infant outcomes, including neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS), and both maternal OUD and NAS are increasing disproportionately among rural residents. This study describes the trajectory and characteristics associated with diagnosis of maternal OUD or NAS among rural residents who gave birth at different types of hospitals based on rural/urban location and teaching status. METHODS: Hospital discharge data from the all-payer National Inpatient Sample were used to describe maternal OUD and infant NAS among rural residents from 2007-2014. Hospitals were categorized as rural, urban teaching, and urban nonteaching. We estimated incidence trends by hospital categories, followed by multivariable logistic regression analyses to identify correlates of OUD and NAS among rural residents, stratified by hospital category. FINDINGS: Incidence of maternal OUD increased in all hospital categories, with higher rates (8.9/1,000 deliveries) among rural residents who gave birth at urban teaching hospitals compared with those who gave birth at rural hospitals (4.3/1,000 deliveries) or urban nonteaching hospitals (3.6/1,000 deliveries; P < .001). A similar pattern was observed for infant NAS. In multivariable models, the association between maternal OUD and infant NAS diagnoses and hospital category differed by rurality (micropolitan vs. noncore.) CONCLUSIONS: There has been a sustained increase in both maternal OUD and NAS diagnoses among rural residents. Measured sociodemographic and clinical correlates of maternal OUD and NAS differ by hospital category, indicating variability across hospital locations in patient populations and clinical needs for rural residents with these conditions.

Opioid prescribing trends in postpartum women: a multicenter study.

BACKGROUND: The postpartum period can be a particularly vulnerable time for exposure to opioid medications, and there are currently no consensus guidelines for physicians to follow regarding opioid prescribing during this period. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate inter- and intrahospital variability in opioid prescribing patterns in postpartum women and better understand the role of clinical variables in prescribing. STUDY DESIGN: Data were extracted from electronic medical records on 4248 patients who delivered at 6 hospitals across the United States from January 2016 through March 2016. The primary outcome of the study was postpartum opioid prescription at the time of hospital discharge. Age, parity, route of delivery, and hospital were analyzed individually and with multivariate analyses to minimize confounding factors. Statistical methods included χ2 to analyze frequency of opioid prescription by hospital, parity, tobacco use, delivery method, and laceration type. An analysis of variance was used to analyze morphine equivalent dose by hospital. RESULTS: The percentage of women prescribed postpartum opioids varied significantly by hospital, ranging from 27.6% to 70.9% (P <0.001). Oxycodone-acetaminophen was the most commonly prescribed medication (50.3%) with each hospital having its preferred opioid type. Median number of tablets prescribed ranged from 20 to 40 (P < .0001). Primiparous women were more likely to receive opioids than multiparous women when broken down by a parity of 1, 2, 3, 4, and ≥5 (52.8%, 48.0%, 47.6%, 40.1%, and 45.8%, respectively, P = .0005). Among women who had vaginal deliveries, opioid prescription rates were higher in women who experienced either a second-degree laceration (35.5%, P = .0002) or a third-/fourth-degree laceration (59.3%, P < .001). CONCLUSION: Postpartum opioid prescription rates vary widely among hospitals, but providers within the same hospital tend to follow similar prescribing trends. The variation in prescribing found in our study illustrates the need for clear consensus guidelines for postpartum pain management.

Pregnancy and Naltrexone Pharmacotherapy.

A 25-year-old woman, gravida 3 para 2 at 12 weeks of gestation, with two prior cesarean deliveries, presents for prenatal care. She is in treatment for opioid use disorder on extended-release naltrexone injection, with a history of opioid overdose, relapse, and poor treatment adherence on methadone and buprenorphine. She asks, "Is it safe for my baby if I continue on this medication? How will you manage my postoperative pain?"

Opioid Use Disorders and Pregnancy.

Opioid use disorder presents an increased risk of complications in pregnancy, particularly when untreated. To optimize outcomes, medication-assisted treatment using methadone or buprenorphine as a part of a comprehensive care model is recommended. Neonatal abstinence syndrome and poor fetal growth remain significant complications of this disorder despite maternal treatment.

Maternal opioid dose is associated with neonatal abstinence syndrome in children born to women with sickle cell disease.

The objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that higher daily opioid dose is associated with the presence and severity of neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) in pregnant women with sickle cell disease (SCD). This was a retrospective study of pregnant women with SCD who required opioids. NAS was evaluated using the Finnegan scoring system and classified as none, mild, and severe. Severe NAS was defined as a Finnegan score ≥ 8 on 3 consecutive tests. Thirty-four pregnancies were examined in 30 women with SCD. Higher daily morphine dose was associated with a higher percentage of days in the hospital during pregnancy (P < 0.001). Hospital days contributed disproportionately to daily morphine dose as larger amounts of opioids were administered in the hospital compared to home (P = 0.002). Median maternal oral morphine dose was 416 mg for infants with severe NAS compared with 139 mg for those with mild NAS (P = 0.04). For infants with no NAS, median maternal morphine was 4 mg, significantly less than those with mild NAS (P < 0.001). Infants born to women who used on average >200 mg/day of oral morphine equivalent in the last month of pregnancy had a 13-fold increased risk of severe NAS compared with those who used <200 mg/day. These data demonstrate that higher median daily opioid dose is associated with progressively more severe NAS in pregnant women with SCD. Strategies to decrease pain and avoid hospitalizations are needed to reduce opioid use and NAS.

Sildenafil increases uterine blood flow in nonpregnant nulliparous women.

This study investigated the effect of sildenafil on uterine volumetric blood flow (UVF) and vascular impedance in nonpregnant, nulliparous women. Fifteen women were randomized in a double-blind fashion to receive either placebo or sildenafil (25 or 100 mg) during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Color Doppler ultrasound of both uterine arteries was performed at baseline and at 1 and 3 hours postdosing to calculate resistance index (RI) and UVF. Those who received sildenafil significantly increased UVF and decreased RI over the 3-hour monitoring period. When UVF responses to sildenafil were examined as a function of baseline UVF, a significant increase in UVF was observed in only those participants with higher baseline UVF. Overall, women in the luteal phase demonstrated a significant increase in UVF in response to sildenafil. However, this increase appears to be directly associated with basal UVF.

Mechanisms underlying maternal venous adaptation in pregnancy.

To define the effects of pregnancy on mechanical properties and reactivity, mesenteric veins from late pregnant and virgin control (nonpregnant) rats were pressurized to determine gestational changes in size and distensibility. Reactivity studies used an adrenergic constrictor (norepinephrine) and an endothelium-mediated vasodilator (acetylcholine). The contribution of nitric oxide to endothelial function was evaluated with pharmacologic inhibition of nitric oxide synthase. Roles of nitric oxide and cyclic guanosine monophosphate in smooth muscle vasodilation were determined using an nitric oxide donor with and without cyclic guanosine monophosphate inhibition using ODQ, a selective inhibitor of guanylyl cyclase. In pregnancy, endothelium-dependent vasodilation markedly increased (largely due to endogenous nitric oxide), smooth muscle response to nitric oxide decreased (primarily related to cyclic guanosine monophosphate production), and norepinephrine sensitivity decreased considerably, with no changes in vessel size or distensibility. Our results identify a provasodilatory state in the systemic venous system, which would serve to facilitate the accommodation to plasma volume expansion requisite for normal pregnancy.