Comparative study on a unique architecture of the brook lamprey liver and that of the hagfish and banded houndshark liver.

Although the liver of the lamprey, a group of cyclostomes that diverged the earliest among vertebrates, has abundant bile ducts in the larval stage, which degenerate during metamorphosis, there is no comparative study on its architecture with other early diverged vertebrates in terms of the morphological evolution of vertebrate livers. The present study was undertaken to compare the characteristics of the brook lamprey liver with those of the hagfish and banded houndshark, which have the portal triad type liver architecture, and to discuss its evolution. Although the liver of the brook lamprey had two-cell cords of hepatocytes lined by sinusoids in the ammocoetes larval stage, intrahepatic bile ducts around portal veins penetrated into the liver parenchyma with convolution and gradual reduction in diameter. They also faced dilated sinusoids. The epithelial cells had characteristic intercellular spaces. These characteristics were distinct from those of bile ducts in the hagfish and banded houndshark livers. Although the liver architectures of the hagfish and banded houndshark were similar, the latter penetrated the intrahepatic bile ducts more deeply along the portal veins than the former, in which intrahepatic bile ducts were restricted near the hilum. After metamorphosis, bile ducts degenerated in brook lampreys. These data indicate that the liver architecture of the ammocoetes larva is unique in the parenchymal distribution of bile ducts, their sinusoidal facing, and morphology among extant vertebrates. The periportal distribution of intrahepatic biliary structures may have been established prior to the divergence of the cyclostomes and gnathostomes.

Changes of biliary cilia, smooth muscle tissue distribution, innervation and extracellular matrices during morphological evolution of hepatic architectures in vertebrates.

BACKGROUND: The liver architecture of vertebrates can be classified into two types, the portal triad type (having periportal bile ducts) and the non-portal triad type (having bile ducts independent of the course of portal veins). The former is typically detectable in livers of tetrapods and cartilaginous fish, and its ancestral state is found in the hagfish, an earliest diverged lineage among vertebrates. Teleosts other than osteoglossomorphs have the latter. The aim of the present study is to reveal the changes of the hepatic innervation, biliary cilia and smooth muscle distribution, and extracellular matrices along vertebrate evolution with attention to the two types of liver architectures. METHODS: The hepatic innervation, biliary cilia and smooth muscle distribution, and collagen deposition were immunohistochemically and histochemically compared among livers of various vertebrates, using anti-acetylated tubulin and anti-α-smooth muscle actin antibodies, and Sirius red staining. These were also ultrastructurally examined. RESULTS: Although the hagfish liver had periportal intrahepatic bile ducts and ductules as detected in mammalian livers, it lacked smooth muscles around bile ducts and portal veins. Extracellular matrices in their connective tissues had thick collagen fibers. Its innervation was restricted to intrahepatic bile ducts and portal veins in the hilum. In livers of other vertebrates, including teleosts, the innervation was broadly detectable, especially around bile ducts, hepatic arteries and portal veins (afferent vessels), but not around central veins (efferent vessels). The chondrichthyans ultrastructurally had smooth muscle tissue around bile ducts. Cilia distribution was confirmed in intrahepatic bile ducts of tetrapods and basal actinopterygians. Teleosts other than osteoglossomorphs lacked cilia in their intrahepatic bile ducts. CONCLUSIONS: The liver architecture of the hagfish may be unique for innervation and extracellular matrices. Hepatic innervation may not have occurred in vertebrate ancestors. Hepatic innervation in bile ducts, hepatic arteries and portal veins may have been conserved among the extant jawed vertebrates. Cilia distribution in bile ducts may have changed during evolution of actinopterygians.

Prevention of Shiga toxin 1-caused colon injury by plant-derived recombinant IgA.

Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is a candidate antibody for oral passive immunization against mucosal pathogens like Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC). We previously established a mouse IgG monoclonal antibody (mAb) neutralizing Shiga toxin 1 (Stx1), a bacterial toxin secreted by STEC. We designed cDNA encoding an anti-Stx1 antibody, in which variable regions were from the IgG mAb and all domains of the heavy chain constant region from a mouse IgA mAb. Considering oral administration, we expressed the cDNA in a plant expression system aiming at the production of enough IgA at low cost. The recombinant-IgA expressed in Arabidopsis thaliana formed the dimeric IgA, bound to the B subunit of Stx1, and neutralized Stx1 toxicity to Vero cells. Colon injury was examined by exposing BALB/c mice to Stx1 via the intrarectal route. Epithelial cell death, loss of crypt and goblet cells from the distal colon were observed by electron microscopy. A loss of secretory granules containing MUC2 mucin and activation of caspase-3 were observed by immunohistochemical methods. Pretreatment of Stx1 with the plant-based recombinant IgA completely suppressed caspase-3 activation and loss of secretory granules. The results indicate that a plant-based recombinant IgA prevented colon damage caused by Stx1 in vivo.

Endothelial Natriuretic Peptide Receptor 1 Play Crucial Role for Acute and Chronic Blood Pressure Regulation by Atrial Natriuretic Peptide.

BACKGROUND: ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide), acting through NPR1 (natriuretic peptide receptor 1), provokes hypotension. Such hypotension is thought to be due to ANP inducing vasodilation via NPR1 in the vasculature; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here, we investigated the mechanisms of acute and chronic blood pressure regulation by ANP. METHODS AND RESULTS: Immunohistochemical analysis of rat tissues revealed that NPR1 was abundantly expressed in endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells of small arteries and arterioles. Intravenous infusion of ANP significantly lowered systolic blood pressure in wild-type mice. ANP also significantly lowered systolic blood pressure in smooth muscle cell-specific Npr1-knockout mice but not in endothelial cell-specific Npr1-knockout mice. Moreover, ANP significantly lowered systolic blood pressure in Nos3-knockout mice. In human umbilical vein endothelial cells, treatment with ANP did not influence nitric oxide production or intracellular Ca2+ concentration, but it did hyperpolarize the cells. ANP-induced hyperpolarization of human umbilical vein endothelial cells was inhibited by several potassium channel blockers and was also abolished under knockdown of RGS2 (regulator of G-protein signaling 2), an GTPase activating protein in G-protein α-subunit. ANP increased Rgs2 mRNA expression in human umbilical vein endothelial cells but failed to lower systolic blood pressure in Rgs2-knockout mice. Endothelial cell-specific Npr1-overexpressing mice exhibited lower blood pressure than did wild-type mice independent of RGS2, and showed dilation of arterial vessels on synchrotron radiation microangiography. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these results indicate that vascular endothelial NPR1 plays a crucial role in ANP-mediated blood pressure regulation, presumably by a mechanism that is RGS2-dependent in the acute phase and RGS2-independent in the chronic phase.

Stability of human salivary extracellular vesicles containing dipeptidyl peptidase IV under simulated gastrointestinal tract conditions.

BACKGROUND: Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been isolated from various sources, including primary and cultured cell lines and body fluids. Previous studies, including those conducted in our laboratory, have reported the stability of EVs under various storage conditions. METHODS: EVs from human whole saliva were separated via size-exclusion chromatography. To simulate the effects of gastric or intestinal fluids on the stability of EVs, pepsin or pancreatin was added to the samples. Additionally, to determine the effect of bile acids, sodium cholate was added. The samples were then subjected to western blotting, dynamic light scattering, and transmission electron microscopy analyses. In addition, the activity of dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP) IV retained in the samples was examined to monitor the stability of EVs. RESULTS: Under acidic conditions, with pepsin mimicking the milieu of the stomach, the EVs remained stable. However, they partially lost their membrane integrity in the presence of pancreatin and sodium cholate, indicating that they may be destabilized after passing through the duodenum. Although several associated proteins, such as mucin 5B and CD9 were degraded, DPP IV was stable, and its activity was retained under the simulated gastrointestinal conditions. CONCLUSION: Our data indicate that although EVs can pass through the stomach without undergoing significant damage, they may be disrupted in the intestine to release their contents. The consistent delivery of active components such as DPP IV from EVs into the intestine might play a role in the efficient modulation of homeostasis of the signal transduction pathways occurring in the gastrointestinal tract.

Cdc42 has important roles in postnatal angiogenesis and vasculature formation.

Cdc42, a Rho family low molecular weight G protein, has important roles in various cell functions, including cytoskeletal rearrangement, cell adhesion and cell proliferation and differentiation. To investigate the involvement of Cdc42 in the activities of vascular endothelial cells, we generated Cdc42 conditional knockout mice in which Cdc42 was time -specifically deficient in vascular endothelial cells (Cdc42 â€‹fl/fl; VE-Cad CreERT: Cdc42 cKO). When the Cdc42 gene was deleted after birth, Cdc42 cKO mice were smaller than the control mice, and died between postnatal day 8 (P8) and P10. Necropsy findings confirmed that these mice had various pathological aberrances in the vessels of most organs, such as blood flow congestion and blood cell invasion. Electron microscopic observations also revealed that capillary endothelial cells were detached from the basement membrane as well as phagocytosis of dead endothelial cells induced by macrophages. Moreover, vascular sprouting from aortic rings induced by VEGF-A was diminished in samples from the Cdc42 cKO mice because of an endothelial cell proliferation defect. These results suggest that Cdc42 in vascular endothelial cells has important roles in blood vessel formation after birth.

Toxicity of Gold Nanoparticles in Mice due to Nanoparticle/Drug Interaction Induces Acute Kidney Damage.

Nanomaterials are innovative materials with many useful properties, but there is concern regarding their many unknown effects on living organisms. Gold nanoparticles are widely used as industrial materials because of their excellent properties. The potential biological hazards of gold nanoparticles are unknown, and thus, here we examined the in vivo effects of gold nanoparticles 10, 50, and 100 nm in diameter (GnP10, GnP50, and GnP100, respectively) and their interactions with drugs in mice to clarify their safety in mammals. Cisplatin, paraquat, and 5-aminosalicylic acid cause side-effect damage to the liver and kidney in mice. No hepatotoxicity or nephrotoxicity was observed when any of the gold nanoparticles alone were administered via the tail vein. In contrast, co-administration of GnP-10 with cisplatin, paraquat, or 5-aminosalicylic acid caused side-effect damage to the kidney. This suggests that gold nanoparticles with a particle size of 10 nm are potentially nephrotoxic due to their interaction with drugs.

Ultrastructural changes in the choriocapillaris of N-methyl-N-nitrosourea-induced retinal degeneration in C57BL/6 mice.

N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU) is known to cause apoptosis of photoreceptor cells and changes in retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). However, the changes in choriocapillaris, which nourishes photoreceptor cells by diffusing tissue fluid through RPE, have not been reported in detail. Therefore, we studied the ultrastructural transformation in and around the choriocapillaris to characterize the interdependence between choriocapillaris and surrounding tissue components in a mouse model. Seven-week-old male C57BL/6 mice were given a single intraperitoneal injection of MNU (60 mg/kg of body weight). Perfusion-fixed eyeballs were examined chronologically using immunohistochemistry and electron microscopy until the photoreceptor cells were lost. Sequential ultrastructural changes were observed in photoreceptor cells, RPE, Bruch's membrane, choriocapillaris, and choroidal melanocytes after an MNU injection. The lumens of the choriocapillaris narrowed following dilation, and the vascular endothelium showed structural alterations. When the photoreceptor cells were completely lost, the choriocapillaris appeared to be in a recovery process. Our results suggest that transport abnormality through Bruch's membrane and structural changes in the choroid might have influenced the morphology of choriocapillaris. The thin wall of the choriocapillaris appears to be the cause of the vulnerability with its altered morphology.

Effect of the Surfactant Charge and Concentration on the Change in the Forces between Two Charged Surfaces in Surfactant Solutions by a Liquid Flow.

A combined atomic force microscope (AFM)-peristaltic pump system was used to determine the effect of a flow on the forces between two negatively charged surfaces (silica particle and silicon wafer) in aqueous solutions containing surfactants. The effect of the surfactant charge on the forces was determined by using an anionic surfactant (sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS) and a cationic surfactant (dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide, DTAB) of the same chain length. The surfactant concentration effect was determined by using concentrations up to the critical micelle concentration. In the case of SDS, a flow reduced the range and magnitude of the repulsive forces. The force range reduction was explained by a shrinking of the diffuse layers, due to the deformation of the diffuse layer by the flow. The force magnitude reduction was explained by (1) the increased electrostatic screening due to the thinner diffuse layers and (2) an increased adsorption of specific ions, such as Na+, to the silica surfaces. In the case of DTAB, a concentration (8.0 mM) that gave an attractive force in the absence of a flow gave a repulsive force in the presence of a flow. Comparison of AFM images of a silicon wafer in DTAB measured in the absence and presence of a liquid flow showed that the number of DTAB patches adsorbed to the silicon wafer increased with a liquid flow. The change in the forces with a flow was therefore explained by this change in the DTAB adsorption to the negatively charged surfaces. As a liquid flow can change the charge of a surface, it may be possible to control the aggregation/dispersion of charged particles via the flow rate, if the appropriate surfactant type and concentration are used.

Adult ALCAPA: from histological picture to clinical features.

BACKGROUND: Anomalous left coronary artery from the pulmonary artery (ALCAPA) is a rare congenital coronary anomaly that results in high mortality if left untreated. Our aim was to extend our knowledge of the histological, angiographic, and clinical characteristics of ALCAPA in order to deepen our understanding of this rare entity. CASE PRESENTATION: We were involved in the assessment, treatment, and pathological evaluation of two adult ALCAPA patients who were rescued from ventricular fibrillation and then surgically treated to establish a dual coronary artery system. Histological studies indicated various chronic ischemic changes in the myocardium, patchy fibrosis, and severely thickened arteriolar walls in both ventricles. The first patient is alive and well 11.5 years after surgical correction without any implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) activations. The second patient required re-do surgery 9 months after the initial operation but subsequently died. Histologically, chronic ischemic alteration of the myocardium and thickened arteriolar walls persisted even after surgical correction, and coronary angiography (CAG) showed an extremely slow flow phenomenon even after surgical correction in both patients. The average postoperative opacification rate in the first case was 7.36 + 1.12 (n = 2) in the RCA, 3.81 + 0.51 (n = 3) in the left anterior descending (LAD) artery, and 4.08 + 0.27 (n = 4) in the left circumflex (LCx) artery. The slow flow phenomenon may represent persistent high arteriolar resistance in both ventricles. CONCLUSIONS: Seldom reported or new findings in adult ALCAPA were identified in two cases. More frequent diagnosis of adult ALCAPA can be expected because of the widespread availability of resuscitation and more advanced diagnostic modalities. Accumulation of pathological and clinical findings and confirmation of the long-term follow-up results after treatment may contribute to expanding our knowledge of this rare entity and establishing optimal treatment.

Liver-specific deletion of Ngly1 causes abnormal nuclear morphology and lipid metabolism under food stress.

The cytoplasmic peptide:N-glycanase (Ngly1) is a de-N-glycosylating enzyme that cleaves N-glycans from misfolded glycoproteins and is involved in endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation. The recent discovery of NGLY1-deficiency, which causes severe systemic symptoms, drew attention to the physiological function of Ngly1 in mammals. While several studies have been carried out to reveal the physiological necessity of Ngly1, the semi-lethal nature of Ngly1-deficient animals made it difficult to analyze its function in adults. In this study, we focus on the physiological function of Ngly1 in liver (hepatocyte)-specific Ngly1-deficient mice generated using the cre-loxP system. We found that hepatocyte-specific Ngly1-deficient mice showed abnormal hepatocyte nuclear size/morphology with aging but did not show other notable defects in unstressed conditions. This nuclear phenotype did not appear to be related to the function of the only gene currently reported to rescue Ngly1-deficient murine lethality so far, endo-ß-N-acetylglucosaminidase. We also found that under a high fructose diet induced stress, the hepatocyte-specific Ngly1-deletion resulted in liver transaminases elevation and increased lipid droplet accumulation. We showed that the processing and localization of the transcription factor, nuclear factor erythroid 2-like 1 (Nfe2l1), was impaired in the Ngly1-deficient hepatocytes. Therefore, Nfe2l1, at least partially, contributes to the phenotypes observed in hepatocyte-specific Ngly1-deficient mice. Our results indicate that Ngly1 plays important roles in the adult liver impacting nuclear morphology and lipid metabolism. Hepatocyte-specific Ngly1-deficient mice could thus serve as a valuable animal model for assessing in vivo efficacy of drugs and/or treatment for NGLY1-deficiency.

O-GlcNAcylation and phosphorylation of ß-actin Ser199 in diabetic nephropathy.

The function of actin is regulated by various posttranslational modifications. We have previously shown that in the kidneys of nonobese type 2 diabetes model Goto-Kakizaki rats, increased O-GlcNAcylation of ß-actin protein is observed. It has also been reported that both O-GlcNAcylation and phosphorylation occur on Ser199 of ß-actin. However, their roles are not known. To elucidate their roles in diabetic nephropathy, we examined the rat kidney for changes in O-GlcNAcylation of Ser199 (gS199)-actin and in the phosphorylation of Ser199 (pS199)-actin. Both gS199- and pS199-actin molecules had an apparent molecular weight of 40 kDa and were localized as nonfilamentous actin in both the cytoplasm and nucleus. Compared with the normal kidney, the immunostaining intensity of gS199-actin increased in podocytes of the glomeruli and in proximal tubules of the diabetic kidney, whereas that of pS199-actin did not change in podocytes but decreased in proximal tubules. We confirmed that the same results could be observed in the glomeruli of the human diabetic kidney. In podocytes of glomeruli cultured in the presence of the O-GlcNAcase inhibitor Thiamet G, increased O-GlcNAcylation was accompanied by a concomitant decrease in the amount of filamentous actin and in morphological changes. Our present results demonstrate that dysregulation of O-GlcNAcylation and phosphorylation of Ser199 occurred in diabetes, which may contribute partially to the causes of the morphological changes in the glomeruli and tubules. gS199- and pS199-actin will thus be useful for the pathological evaluation of diabetic nephropathy.

The hepatic architecture of the coelacanth differs from that of the lungfish in portal triad formation.

The liver architecture of vertebrates can be classified into two types, the portal triad type (having periportal bile ducts) and the non-portal triad type (having non-periportal bile ducts). The former is detectable in the tetrapod liver whereas the lungfish liver has the latter. It remains to be revealed which type of hepatic architecture the coelacanth, which together with the lungfish belongs to the Sarcopterygii, possesses. The present study was undertaken to determine the histological characteristics of the coelacanth liver, and to compare with those of other vertebrates. The coelacanth liver had periportal bile ducts and ductules as detected in mammalian livers. The hepatic artery was found around large portal veins. Hagfish, shark, bichir, sturgeon, bowfin and frog livers had periportal bile ducts and bile ductules, whereas most intrahepatic bile ducts of the lungfish were independent of the distribution of the portal veins as seen in the Otocephala and Euteleostei. The lungfish liver developed duct and ductule structures in the parenchyma. These data indicate that the coelacanth liver had a mammalian-type hepatic architecture with a portal triad, and that the ancestors of tetrapods may have had a portal triad-type liver architecture.

ELKS/Voltage-Dependent Ca2+ Channel-ß Subunit Module Regulates Polarized Ca2+ Influx in Pancreatic ß Cells.

Pancreatic ß cells secrete insulin by Ca2+-triggered exocytosis. However, there is no apparent secretory site similar to the neuronal active zones, and the cellular and molecular localization mechanism underlying polarized exocytosis remains elusive. Here, we report that ELKS, a vertebrate active zone protein, is used in ß cells to regulate Ca2+ influx for insulin secretion. ß cell-specific ELKS-knockout (KO) mice showed impaired glucose-stimulated first-phase insulin secretion and reduced L-type voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel (VDCC) current density. In situ Ca2+ imaging of ß cells within islets expressing a membrane-bound G-CaMP8b Ca2+ sensor demonstrated initial local Ca2+ signals at the ELKS-localized vascular side of the ß cell plasma membrane, which were markedly decreased in ELKS-KO ß cells. Mechanistically, ELKS directly interacted with the VDCC-ß subunit via the GK domain. These findings suggest that ELKS and VDCCs form a potent insulin secretion complex at the vascular side of the ß cell plasma membrane for polarized Ca2+ influx and first-phase insulin secretion from pancreatic islets.

Reduction in the Repulsive Forces between Two Charged Surfaces in Aqueous Solutions Containing Salts by a Liquid Flow.

In spite of the fact that a flow is often present in the liquid in which charged particles are dispersed, the effect of a flow on the forces controlling the dispersion is not clear. Here, we used a combined atomic force microscope-peristaltic pump system to determine the effect of a flow in aqueous solutions between a negatively charged silica particle and a negatively charged silicon wafer on the forces in the system. The effect of a flow on the forces in water or aqueous solutions of NaCl or MgCl2·6H2O was studied for salt concentrations lower than the concentrations needed to invert the charge of the silica and silicon surfaces. This was done to prevent the formation of a reversed flow in the system due to a charge inversion of the silica surface. A flow was seen to decrease the intersurface repulsive forces, if the water contained salt (NaCl or MgCl2·6H2O). An increased bulk salt concentration was also seen to decrease the repulsive forces further in the presence of a liquid flow. The surface potentials and effective ionic concentrations of the systems were determined by comparing the experimental curves with the theoretically calculated ones. The surface potentials and effective ionic concentrations were seen to decrease and increase, respectively, as the flow rate and bulk salt concentrations were increased. This change was explained by the shrinking of the diffuse layers by the liquid flow, due to part of the diffuse layer being washed away by the flowing liquid.

Contribution of the exosome-associated form of secreted endoplasmic reticulum aminopeptidase 1 to exosome-mediated macrophage activation.

Macrophages secrete endoplasmic reticulum aminopeptidase 1 (ERAP1) in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon (IFN)-γ to enhance their phagocytic and nitric oxide (NO) synthetic activities. In this study, we found that a subset of secreted ERAP1 bound to exosomes released from LPS/IFN-γ-treated murine RAW264.7 macrophages compared to untreated cells. ERAP1-bound exosomes enhanced phagocytic and NO synthetic activities of macrophages more efficiently than free ERAP1 and exosomes derived from untreated cells. Deletion of the exon 10 coding sequence in ERAP1 gene resulted in loss of binding to exosomes. By comparing the activities of exosomes derived from wild-type and ERAP1 gene-deficient RAW264.7 cells, we observed that ERAP1 contributed to the exosome-dependent phagocytosis and NO synthesis of the cells. Upon stimulation of RAW264.7 cells with LPS/IFN-γ, TNF-α, IFN-γ, and CCL3 were also associated with the released exosomes. Analyses of cytokine function revealed that while CCL3 in the exosomes was crucial to the phagocytic activity of RAW264.7 cells, TNF-α and IFN-γ primarily contributed to the enhancement of NO synthesis. These results suggest that treatment with LPS/IFN-γ alters the physicochemical properties of exosomes released from macrophages in order to facilitate association with ERAP1 and several cytokines/chemokines. This leads to exosome-mediated enhancement of macrophage functions. It is possible that packaging effector molecules into exosomes upon inflammatory stimuli, facilitates the exertion of effective pathophysiological functions on macrophages. Our data provide the first evidence that ERAP1 associated with exosomes plays important roles in inflammatory processes via activation of macrophages.

Phylogenetic analyses of the hepatic architecture in vertebrates.

The mammalian liver has a structural and functional unit called the liver lobule, in the periphery of which the portal triad consisting of the portal vein, bile duct and hepatic artery is developed. This type of hepatic architecture is detectable in many other vertebrates, including amphibians and birds, whereas intrahepatic bile ducts run independently of portal vein distribution in actinopterygians such as the salmon and tilapia. It remains to be clarified how the hepatic architectures are phylogenetically developed among vertebrates. The present study morphologically and immunohistochemically analyzed the hepatic structures of various vertebrates, including as many classes and subclasses as possible, with reference to intrahepatic bile duct distribution. The livers of vertebrates belonging to the Agnatha, Chondrichthyes, Amphibia, Aves, Mammalia, and Actinopterygii before Elopomorpha, had the portal triad-type architecture. The Anguilliformes livers developed both periportal bile ducts and non-periportal bile ducts. The Otocephala and Euteleostei livers had independent configuration of bile ducts and portal veins. Pancreatic tissues penetrated the liver parenchyma along portal veins in the Euteleostei. The liver of the lungfish, which shares the same origin with amphibians, did not have the portal triad-type architecture. Teleostei and lungfish livers had ductular development in the liver parenchyma similar to oval cell proliferation in injured mammalian livers. Euteleostei livers had penetration of significant numbers of independent portal veins from their intestines, suggesting that each liver lobe might receive a different blood supply. The hepatic architectures of the portal triad-type changed to non-portal triad-type architecture along the evolution of the Actinopterygii. The hepatic architecture of the lungfish resembles that of the Actinopterygii after Elopomorpha in intrahepatic biliary configuration, which may be an example of convergent evolution.

Characterization of Membrane Integrity and Morphological Stability of Human Salivary Exosomes.

Exosomes are derived from various sources, including primary and cultured cell lines and body fluids. It is now evident that they are important for communication between cells. They have, therefore, been proposed as potential carriers to deliver drugs to specific sites. In this study, we examined stability of exosomes derived from human saliva. Exosomes were stored at 4°C for up to 20 months and their membrane integrity assessed. Several exosomal markers, such as dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV; membrane marker) and programmed cell death 6-interacting protein (Alix, lumen marker), were retained intact after 20 months storage at 4°C. Moreover, intact exosomes could be isolated from whole saliva that had been stored at 4°C. Membrane disruption with detergents such as Triton X-100 and Nonidet P-40 caused partial solubilization of DPP IV and release of Alix into the supernatant. In contrast, sodium dodecyl sulfate treatment caused a complete disruption of the membrane. In addition, membrane stability was maintained after freezing and thawing. These results indicated that human saliva-derived exosomes are stable, maintaining their membrane integrity over a long storage period.

Structural Behavior of the Endothelial Glycocalyx Is Associated With Pathophysiologic Status in Septic Mice: An Integrated Approach to Analyzing the Behavior and Function of the Glycocalyx Using Both Electron and Fluorescence Intravital Microscopy.

BACKGROUND: The endothelial surface layer (ESL) regulates vascular permeability to maintain fluid homeostasis. The glycocalyx (GCX), which has a complex and fragile ultrastructure, is an important component of the ESL. Abnormalities of the GCX have been hypothesized to trigger pathological hyperpermeability. Here, we report an integrated in vivo analysis of the morphological and functional properties of the GCX in a vital organ. METHODS: We examined the behavior of the ESL and GCX, using both electron microscopy (EM) and intravital microscopy (IVM). We also compared morphological changes in the ESL of mouse skin in a glycosidase-treated and control group. Combined approaches were also used to examine both morphology and function in a lipopolysaccharide-induced septic model and the pathophysiological features of leukocyte-endothelial interactions and in vivo vascular permeability. RESULTS: Using IVM, we identified an illuminated part of the ESL as the GCX and confirmed our observation using morphological and biochemical means. In septic mice, we found that the GCX was thinner than in nonseptic controls in both an EM image analysis (0.98 ± 2.08 nm vs 70.68 ± 36.36 nm, P< .001) and an IVM image analysis (0.36 ± 0.15 µm vs 1.07 ± 0.39 µm, P< .001). Under septic conditions, syndecan-1, a representative core protein of the GCX, was released into the blood serum at a higher rate in septic animals (7.33 ± 3.46 ng/mL) when compared with controls (below the limit of detection, P< .001). Significant increases in leukocyte-endothelial interactions, defined as the numbers of rolling or firm-sticking leukocytes, and molecular hyperpermeability to the interstitium were also observed after GCX shedding in vivo. CONCLUSIONS: Using IVM, we visualized an illuminated part of the ESL layer that was subsequently confirmed as the GCX using EM. Severe sepsis induced morphological degradation of the GCX, accompanied by shedding of the syndecan-1 core protein and an increase in leukocyte-endothelial interactions affecting the vascular permeability. Our in vivo model describes a new approach to deciphering the relationship between structural and functional behaviors of the GCX.

Protection of Human Colon Cells from Shiga Toxin by Plant-based Recombinant Secretory IgA.

Shiga toxin is a major virulence factor of food-poisoning caused by Escherichia coli such as O157:H7. Secretory immunoglobulin (Ig) A (SIgA) is supposed to prevent infection of the mucosal surface and is a candidate agent for oral immunotherapy. We previously established a recombinant monoclonal antibody (mAb) consisting of variable regions from a mouse IgG mAb specific for the binding subunit of Shiga toxin 1 (Stx1) and the Fc region of mouse IgA. Here we produced a secretory form of the recombinant IgA (S-hyIgA) with transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plant. All the S-hyIgA cDNAs (heavy, light, J chain and secretory component) were expressed under the control of a bidirectional promoter of a chlorophyll a/b-binding protein of A. thaliana without using a viral promoter. The plant-based S-hyIgA exhibited antigen binding, and was modified with plant-specific N-linked sugar chains. The Ig heavy chain and secretory components were observed in an intracellular protein body-like structure of the transgenic leaves on immuno-electron microscopy. An extract of the transgenic leaves neutralized the cytotoxicity of Stx1 toward butyrate-treated Caco-2 cells, a human colon carcinoma cell line. These results will contribute to the development of edible therapeutic antibodies such as those for the treatment of mucosal infection.