Clinical Implications of Isocitrate Dehydrogenase Mutations and Targeted Treatment of Acute Myeloid Leukemia with Mutant Isocitrate Dehydrogenase Inhibitors-Recent Advances, Challenges and Future Prospects.

Despite the better understanding of the molecular mechanisms contributing to the pathogenesis of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and improved patient survival in recent years, AML therapy still remains a clinical challenge. For this reason, it is important to search for new therapies that will enable the achievement of remission. Recently, the Food and Drug Administration approved three mutant IDH (mIDH) inhibitors for the treatment of AML. However, the use of mIDH inhibitors in monotherapy usually leads to the development of resistance and the subsequent recurrence of the cancer, despite the initial effectiveness of the therapy. A complete understanding of the mechanisms by which IDH mutations influence the development of leukemia, as well as the processes that enable resistance to mIDH inhibitors, may significantly improve the efficacy of this therapy through the use of an appropriate synergistic approach. The aim of this literature review is to present the role of IDH1/IDH2 mutations in the pathogenesis of AML and the results of clinical trials using mIDH1/IDH2 inhibitors in AML and to discuss the challenges related to the use of mIDH1/IDH2 inhibitors in practice and future prospects related to the potential methods of overcoming resistance to these agents.

Circulating Levels of Soluble α-Klotho and FGF23 in Childhood Cancer Survivors: Lack of Association with Nephro- and Cardiotoxicity-A Preliminary Study.

Background/Objectives: The survival rate among pediatric cancer patients has reached 80%; however, these childhood cancer survivors (CCSs) are at a heightened risk of developing chronic conditions in adulthood, particularly kidney and cardiovascular diseases. The aims of this study were to assess the serum α-Klotho and FGF23 levels in CCSs and to determine their association with nephro- and cardiotoxicity. Methods: This study evaluated a cohort of 66 CCSs who remained in continuous remission, with a mean follow-up of 8.41 ± 3.76 years. Results: The results of this study revealed that CCSs exhibited significantly higher levels of soluble α-Klotho compared to healthy peers (1331.4 ± 735.5 pg/mL vs. 566.43 ± 157.7 pg/mL, p < 0.0001), while no significant difference was observed in their FGF23 levels. Within the participant cohort, eight individuals (12%) demonstrated a reduced estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) below 90 mL/min/1.73 m2. The relationship between treatment with abdominal radiotherapy and reduced eGFR was confirmed (p < 0.05). No correlations were found between potential treatment-related risk factors, such as chemotherapy or radiation therapy, serum levels of α-Klotho and FGF23, and nephro- and cardiotoxicity. Conclusions: In conclusion, this preliminary cross-sectional study revealed elevated levels of α-Klotho among childhood cancer survivors but did not establish a direct association with anticancer treatment. The significance of elevated α-Klotho protein levels among CCSs warrants further investigation.

Changes in the Concentrations of Proangiogenic Cytokines in Human Brain Glioma and Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia.

Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and glioma are some of the most common malignancies, with ALL most often affecting children and glioma affecting adult men. Proangiogenic cytokines and growth factors play an important role in the development of both of these tumors. Glioma is characterized by an extremely extensive network of blood vessels, which continues to expand mainly in the process of neoangiogenesis, the direct inducers of which are cytokines from the family of vascular endothelial growth factors, i.e., vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF-A) and its receptor vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGF-R2), as well as a cytokine from the fibroblast growth factor family, fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2 or bFGF). Growth factors are known primarily for their involvement in the progression and development of solid tumors, but there is evidence that local bone marrow angiogenesis and increased blood vessel density are also present in hematological malignancies, including leukemias. The aim of this study was to examine changes in the concentrations of VEGF-A, VEGF-R2, and FGF-2 (with a molecular weight of 17 kDa) in a group of patients divided into specific grades of malignancy (glioma) and a control group; changes of VEGF-A and FGF-2 concentrations in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia and a control group; and to determine correlations between the individual proteins as well as the influence of the patient's age, diet, and other conditions that may place the patient in the risk group. During the statistical analysis, significant differences in concentrations were found between the patient and control groups in samples from people with diagnosed glioma and from children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia, but in general, there are no significant differences in the concentrations of VEGF-A, VEGF-R2, and FGF-2 between different grades of glioma malignancy. Among individuals treated for glioma, there was no significant impact from the patient's gender and age, consumption of food from plastic packaging, frequency of eating vegetables and fruit, smoking of tobacco products, the intensity of physical exercise, or the general condition of the body (Karnofsky score) on the concentrations of the determined cytokines and receptor. The listed factors do not bring about an actual increase in the risk of developing brain glioma.

Proline Metabolism in WHO G4 Gliomas Is Altered as Compared to Unaffected Brain Tissue.

Proline metabolism has been identified as a significant player in several neoplasms, but knowledge of its role in gliomas is limited despite it providing a promising line of pursuit. Data on proline metabolism in the brain are somewhat historical. This study aims to investigate alterations of proline metabolism in gliomas of WHO grade 4 (GG4) in the context of the brain. A total of 20 pairs of samples were studied, consisting of excised tumor and unaffected brain tissue, obtained when partial brain resection was required to reach deep-seated lesions. Levels of proline oxidase/proline dehydrogenase (POX/PRODH), Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate reductases (PYCR1/2/3), prolidase (PEPD), and metalloproteinases (MMP-2, MMP-9) were assessed, along with the concentration of proline and proline-related metabolites. In comparison to normal brain tissue, POX/PRODH expression in GG4 was found to be suppressed, while PYCR1 expression and activity of PEPD, MMP-2, and -9 were upregulated. The GG4 proline concentration was 358% higher. Hence, rewiring of the proline metabolism in GG4 was confirmed for the first time, with a low-POX/PRODH/high-PYCR profile. High PEPD and MMPs activity is in keeping with GG4-increased collagen turnover and local aggressiveness. Further studies on the mechanisms of the interplay between altered proline metabolism and the GG4 microenvironment are warranted.

Vitamin D Deficiency and Carotid Media-Intima Thickness in Childhood Cancer Survivors.

Childhood cancer survivors (CCS) are predisposed to developing numerous late effects of anticancer treatment later in life. The existing literature suggests that vitamin D deficiency (VDD) may influence cardiovascular abnormalities and metabolic diseases. The objectives of this study were to investigate the prevalence of VDD among childhood cancer survivors and examine the association of vitamin D deficiency and carotid intima-media thickness (IMT). The study comprised 111 childhood cancer survivors (62 males, 49 females) with a median follow-up time of 6.14 years. Vitamin D status was determined by measuring serum 25(OH)D levels using the automatic immunoenzymatic method. Ultrasonography of the common carotid artery (CCA), the carotid bulb, and the proximal part of the internal carotid artery (ICA) was conducted. Vitamin D deficiency (<20 ng/mL) was detected in 69.4% of CCS. A higher parathormone level and increased BMI were observed among VDD survivors. No effects of type of diagnosis, radiotherapy or hematopoietic stem cell transplantation on vitamin D status were observed. Our findings reveal that survivors with VDD exhibited significantly greater thickness in the CCA and carotid bulb. In conclusion, the results of our study of childhood cancer survivors demonstrate that vitamin D deficiency is prevalent in up to 70% of individuals. We did not confirm the hypothesis that factors related to anticancer treatment used during childhood contributed to the higher prevalence of VDD. Additionally, we did not verify the contribution of vitamin D deficiency to the increase in IMT thickness.

Apolipoproteins-New Biomarkers of Overweight and Obesity among Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Survivors?

Patients suffering from childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) are at risk of late adverse treatment-related effects. The examination of targeted biomarkers could be used to improve the diagnosis and prediction of life-threatening ALL sequelae. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to search for treatment-related alterations in apolipoprotein (Apo) levels as potential markers of the occurrence of obesity in subjects treated for ALL, and to assess the relationships between weight, gender, anticancer treatment, and Apo concentrations. Fifty-eight ALL survivors were included in the study. The mean time of follow-up after treatment cessation was 5.41 ± 4.29 years. Serum levels of apolipoproteins were measured using a multiplex assay kit. Among ALL survivors, we observed a significant correlation of Apo-C1, Apo-C3, Apo-H, and Apo-J levels, depending on body mass index (BMI). Marked differences were observed in the area under the curve of Apo-A1, Apo-A2, Apo-C1, Apo-D. In our study, patients with a history of childhood ALL developed alterations in their Apo profile. Furthermore, this is the first study revealing that some apolipoproteins may act as valuable biomarkers useful in the prognosis of metabolic imbalance. We believe that this paper, at least partially, will highlight the importance of long-term prognosis of metabolic complications associated with the anticancer chemotherapy used to treat hematological malignancies in children.

Late effects of childhood cancer treatment in long-term survivors diagnosed before the age of 3 years - A multicenter, nationwide study.

BACKGROUND: The effect of age on the incidence of late sequelae that occur after anticancer treatment in childhood is still not fully elucidated. In this multicenter study of long-term survivors diagnosed before age of three, we investigated the prevalence of late effects many years after treatment. METHODS: The study group (n = 561) was selected from the Polish National Childhood Cancer Survivors Registry (n = 1761) created in 2007. A survivor was defined as an individual who has survived at least 5 years after completion of anticancer treatment. All children were diagnosed between 1991 and 2016, mean age at diagnosis was 1.82 years (range 0.03-2.99) and median follow up time - 9.85 years (range 5.0-23.6). They were treated in accordance with international protocols approved by the Polish Pediatric Leukemia and Lymphoma Group and Polish Solid Tumor Group. Chemotherapy alone was used in 192 (34.2%), chemotherapy and radiotherapy - 56 (10%), chemotherapy and surgery - 176 (31.4%), chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery - 79 (14.1%), and surgery alone in 58 patients (10.3%). RESULTS: Of all patients enrolled to the study, only 94 (16.8%) had normal function of all organs. Seventy-six (13.5%) children developed dysfunction in one organ, another 83 (14.8%) had symptoms or complaints suggestive of dysfunction in two organs or systems, 88 (15.7%) had abnormalities in three organs, and 220 (39.2%) had at least four or more dysfunctions. In the entire study group, dysfunctions most frequently (> 20% of cases) involved the following organs/systems: circulatory - 21.8%, urinary - 30.8%, gastrointestinal - 20.8%, immune - 23.5%, vision - 20.7%, hearing - 21.8%, and oral and masticatory dysfunction - 26.9%. We did not find any significant differences in organ dysfunction between children diagnosed under the age of 1 and those diagnosed at the age of 1-3, except for a lower incidence of thyroid abnormalities (p = 0.007) and the higher prevalence of liver dysfunction in youngest patients. In the subset with longer follow-up period (> 10 years) more frequent thyroid abnormalities (p = 0.019), male (p = 0.002) and female (p = 0.026) gonads dysfunction, as well as musculoskeletal problems (p < 0.001) were observed. Among subjects who received radiotherapy compared to those who did not, short stature (p = 0.001), and dysfunction of the following systems/organs - circulatory (p = 0.049), urinary (p = 0.012), thyroid gland (p < 0.0001), nervous (p = 0.007), immunological (p = 0.002), liver (p = 0.03), dental or chewing difficulties (p = 0.001), hearing (p = 0.001) and musculoskeletal (p = 0.026) were more frequently reported. When multimodal therapy was applied (chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery) a higher incidence of short stature (p = 0.007), urinary system disorders (p < 0.0001), thyroid dysfunction (p < 0.0001), hearing loss (p < 0.0001), and skin problems (p = 0.031) were observed. CONCLUSION: This study confirms that radiotherapy and some specific toxicity of cytostatics are the most important factors affecting organ function. Apart from a higher incidence of liver dysfunction in the youngest patients, there were no significant differences in organ and system toxicities between children diagnosed under the age of 1 and those diagnosed at the age of 1-3. We have shown that this group requires systematic, careful and long-term follow-up.

Asymptomatic Survivors of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Demonstrate a Biological Profile of Inflamm-Aging Early in Life.

Childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) survivors are at higher risk of developing many late effects later in life. They experience multiple health problems that have significant public health implications, such as frailty, premature onset of lifestyle diseases, and second tumors. There is some evidence that chronic inflammation causes accelerated aging in childhood cancer survivors; however, the available data are very limited. The aim of the study was to evaluate the broad panel of cytokines among asymptomatic ALL survivors after anticancer treatment. The study included 56 subjects with a mean age of 16.11 ± 3.98 years. The commercially available Bio-Plex Pro Human Cytokine Screening 48-Plex Panel Assay and Bio-Plex TGF-ß Assay were used for simultaneous determination of 48 cytokines and 3 isoforms of TGF-ß. Among 51 tested cytokines, the levels of 33 were statistically significantly higher in ALL survivors than in the control group (p < 0.05). Increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including the IL-1 family (IL-1 ß, IL-1Ra; p < 0.0001), IL-6 (p < 0.001), IL-17 (p < 0.001), IL-18 (p < 0.05), TNFα (p < 0.01), IFNα2 (p < 0.05), and IFNγ (p < 0.01), were found elevated in the entire study group, compared with the controls. Subjects treated previously according to the high-risk protocol had higher IL-18 levels than low- and intermediate-risk groups (p < 0.05). Elevated levels of IL-1ra, IL-6, IL-12 (p70), IL-17, LIF, M-CSF, CSF, and VEGF were found in ALL survivors treated before the age of 5, compared with subjects treated over 5 years of age (p < 0.05). Moreover, individuals who received radiotherapy presented elevated levels of both IL-18 (p < 0.05) and MIG (p < 0.05). In conclusion, we found that young asymptomatic survivors after ALL treatment demonstrated a biological profile of complex low-grade chronic inflammation.

Biomarkers of Glucose Metabolism Alterations and the Onset of Metabolic Syndrome in Survivors of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia.

Owing to advances in treatment modalities and supportive care, overall survival rates have reached up to 90% among children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL). However, due to the underlying illness and therapy, they are at a greater risk of developing lifestyle diseases. Hence, special attention is paid to early detection of the components of metabolic syndrome (MetS). This study aimed at investigating the association of plasma levels of nine diabetes markers with being overweight and components of MetS in ALL survivors. The study included 56 subjects with mean age of 12.36 ± 5.15 years. The commercially available Bio-Plex Pro Human Diabetes 10-Plex Panel kit was used to evaluate levels of diabetes biomarkers. ALL survivors presented statistically higher concentrations of GIP (p = 0.026), glucagon (p = 0.001), leptin (p = 0.022), and PAI-1 (p = 0.047), whereas the concentration of ghrelin was lower (p < 0.001) compared to the control group. Moreover, subjects within normal BMI range showed higher GIP (p = 0.005) and lower ghrelin concentration (p < 0.001) compared to healthy peers. At least one risk factor of MetS was present in 58.9% of participants, who showed significantly higher levels of C-peptide (p = 0.028), leptin (p = 0.003), and PAI-1 (p = 0.034) than survivors who did not meet any MetS criteria. In conclusion, ALL survivors are at greater risk of disturbances in carbohydrate metabolism. Understanding the pathogenesis and applicability of diabetes markers is crucial for developing strategies to prevent metabolic syndrome in ALL survivors.

T2-PROPELLER Compared to T2-FRFSE for Image Quality and Lesion Detection at Prostate MRI.

PURPOSE: The primary objective was to compare T2-FRFSE and T2-PROPELLER sequences for image quality. The secondary objective was to compare the ability to detect prostate lesions at MRI in the presence and absence of motion artefact using the 2 sequences. METHODS: 99 patients underwent 3 T MRI examination of the prostate, including T2-FRFSE and T2-PROPELLER sequences. All patients underwent prostate biopsy. Two independent readers rated overall image quality, presence of motion artefact, and blurring for both sequences using a 5-point Likert scale. Scores were compared for the whole group and for subgroups with and without significant motion artefact. Outcome for lesion detection at an MRI threshold of PI-RADS score ≥3 was compared between T2-FRFSE and T2-PROPELLER. RESULTS: The overall image quality was not significantly different between T2-FRFSE and T2-PROPELLER sequences (3.74 vs. 3.93, p = 0.275). T2-PROPELLER recorded a lesser degree of motion artefact (score 4.53 vs. 3.78, p <0.0001), but demonstrated greater image blurring (score 3.29 vs. 3.73, p <0.001). However, in a subgroup of patients with significant motion artefact on T2-FRFSE, the T2-PROPELLER sequence demonstrated significantly higher image quality (3.46 vs. 2.49, p <0.001). T2-FRFSE and T2-PROPELLER showed comparable positive predictive values for lesion detection at 93.2% and 97.7%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: T2-PROPELLER provides higher quality imaging in the presence of motion artefact, but T2-FRFSE is preferred in the absence of motion. T2-PROPELLER is therefore recommended as a secondary T2 sequence when imaging requires repeat acquisition due to motion artefact.

Urinary Beta-2-Microglobulin and Late Nephrotoxicity in Childhood Cancer Survivors.

The objectives of this study were to evaluate urinary beta-2-microglobulin (ß2M) levels in long-term childhood cancer survivors and to establish its association with anticancer drug-induced nephrotoxicity. The study consisted of 165 childhood cancer survivors (CCS) who were in continuous complete remission. We reported that CCS had a significantly higher level of ß2M (p < 0.001) and ß2M/Cr. ratio (p < 0.05) than healthy peers. Among all participants, 24 (14.5%) had decreased eGFR (<90 mL/min/1.73 m2). A significant positive correlation between ß2M/Cr. ratio and body mass index (coef. 14.48, p = 0.046) was found. Furthermore, higher levels of urinary ß2M were detected among CCS with a longer follow-up time (over 5 years) after treatment. Subjects with decreased eGFR showed statistically higher urinary ß2M levels (20.06 ± 21.56 ng/mL vs. 8.55 ± 3.65 ng/mL, p = 0.007) compared with the healthy peers. Twelve survivors (7.2%) presented hyperfiltration and they had higher urinary ß2M levels than CCS with normal glomerular filtration (46.33 ± 93.11 vs. 8.55 ± 3.65 ng/mL, p = 0.029). This study did not reveal an association between potential treatment-related risk factors such as chemotherapy, surgery, radiotherapy, and the urinary ß2M level. The relationship between treatment with abdominal radiotherapy and reduced eGFR was confirmed (p < 0.05). We demonstrated that urinary beta-2-microglobulin may play a role in the subtle kidney injury in childhood cancer survivors; however, the treatment-related factors affecting the ß2M level remain unknown. Further prospective studies with a longer follow-up time are needed to confirm the utility of urinary ß2M and its role as a non-invasive biomarker of renal dysfunction.

Galectin-3-A New Player of Kidney Damage or an Innocent Bystander in Children with a Single Kidney?

The aim of this study was to evaluate the galectin-3 (Gal-3) level in children with a congenital solitary functioning kidney (cSFK) and determine its association with common renal function parameters. The study consisted of 68 children (49 males) with cSFK. We demonstrated that children with cSFK had a lower level of galectin-3 than that of healthy subjects (p < 0.001). No significant differences in serum cystatin C (Cys C) levels between the cSFK children and the reference group were found. The subjects with cSFK and reduced estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) had significantly higher levels of Gal-3 and Cys C compared to those with normal eGFR (p < 0.05). Children with eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 showed significant statistical differences between the values of area under ROC curve (AUC) for Gal-3 (AUC 0.91) and Cys C (AUC 0.96) compared to that for creatinine level (AUC 0.76). Similar analyses carried out among cSFK children with eGFR <90 mL/min/1.73 m2 revealed an AUC value of 0.69 for Gal-3, 0.74 for Cys C, and 0.64 for creatinine; however, no significant superiority was shown for any of them. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses for identifying the SFK children among all participants based on the serum levels of Gal-3 and Cys C did not show any diagnostic profile (AUCs for Gal-3 and Cys C were 0.22 and 0.59, respectively). A positive correlation between the Gal-3 and Cys C concentrations was found (r = 0.39, p = 0.001). We demonstrated for the first time that Gal-3 might play an important role in the subtle kidney damage in children with cSFK. However, further prospective studies are required to confirm the potential applicability of Gal-3 as an early biomarker for kidney injury and possible progression to CKD.

Increased Levels of Adipocyte and Epidermal Fatty Acid-Binding Proteins in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia Survivors.

Childhood cancer survivors are highly exposed to the development of side effects after many years of cessation of anticancer treatment, including altered lipid metabolism that may result in an increased risk of overweight and metabolic syndrome. Adipocyte (A-FABP) and epidermal (E-FABP) fatty acid-binding proteins are expressed in adipocytes and are assumed to play an important role in the development of lipid disturbances leading to the onset of metabolic syndrome. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between serum A-FABP and E-FABP levels, overweight, and components of the metabolic syndrome in acute lymphoblastic leukemia survivors. Sixty-two acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) survivors (34 females) were included in the study. The mean age at the time of the study was 12.41 ± 4.98 years (range 4.71-23.43). Serum levels of A-FABP and E-FABP were analyzed using a commercially available ELISA kit. The ALL survivors presented statistically higher A-FABP levels in comparison with the healthy controls (25.57 ± 14.46 vs. 15.13 ± 7.61 ng/mL, p < 0.001). The subjects with body mass index (BMI) above the normal range (18 overweight, 10 obese) had a greater level of A-FABP compared to the ALL group with normal BMI (32.02 ± 17.10 vs. 20.33 ± 9.24 ng/mL, p = 0.006). Of all participants, 53.23% had at least one risk factor of metabolic syndrome; in this group, only the A-FABP level showed a statistically significant difference compared to the healthy control group (30.63 ± 15.91 vs. 15.13 ± 7.61 ng/mL, p < 0.001). The subjects with two or more metabolic risk factors (16.13%) presented higher levels of both A-FABP (33.62 ± 17.16 vs. 15.13 ± 7.61 ng/mL, p = 0.001) and E-FABP (13.37 ± 3.62 vs. 10.12 ± 3.21 ng/mL, p = 0.021) compared to the controls. Univariable regression models showed significant associations between BMI and systolic blood pressure with the A-FABP level (coeff. 1.02 and 13.74, respectively; p < 0.05). In contrast, the E-FABP level was only affected by BMI (coeff. 0.48; p < 0.01). The findings reported herein suggest that the increased levels of A-FABP and E-FABP may be involved in the pathogenesis of overweight and the onset of metabolic syndrome in acute lymphoblastic leukemia. However, further longitudinal, prospective studies of fatty acid-binding proteins and their potential role in the pathogenesis of obesity and metabolic syndrome in ALL survivors remain to be performed.

A long-term trajectory of bone mineral density in childhood cancer survivors after discontinuation of treatment: retrospective cohort study.

Low bone mineral density (BMD) was diagnosed in 24% of childhood cancer survivors (CCS), whereas very low BMD was relatively uncommon at 8%. We suggest that low BMD in CCS may become alleviated over time. Stem cell transplantation, radiotherapy, and underweight were the strongest independent predictors of decreased BMD. PURPOSE: Childhood cancer survivors (CCS) are at risk of premature bone loss, although published studies are inconsistent. The objective of this study was to evaluate the prevalence and pattern of low bone mineral density (BMD) in short- and long-term CCS, and to determine clinical factors affecting skeleton after anticancer treatment. METHODS: This retrospective study was conducted in a cohort of 326 children and young adult CCS (147 females) who completed anticancer treatment. BMD was determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Low BMD was defined as a Z-score ≤ - 1.0, and the very low BMD as a Z-score ≤ - 2.0. Additionally, the changes in BMD over time were studied in 123 CCS who had been re-examined by DXA during follow-up. RESULTS: Median age at diagnosis was 7.27 years (range, 4.4-10.6); median time between end of treatment and DXA was 6.12 (range, 4.0-22.0). Low BMD was found in 24% of CCS, while very low BMD was relatively uncommon (8%). Based on multivariate analysis, the following were significantly associated with low BMD at the follow-up: hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (OR 3.13, 95% CI 1.02-9.63), head and neck radiotherapy (OR 2.54, 95% CI 1.32-4.90), and body weight below the standard reference (OR 3.57, 95% CI 1.24-10.23). The time-related trajectory showed an improvement (BMDLS) or stabilization (BMDTB) in Z-scores values. CONCLUSION: These data based on serial DXA measurements, encompassing a long-lasting observation period, show that CCS may not be at risk of premature bone loss in young adulthood. However, it is unknown how the scenario for skeletal mass is until the CCS will achieve older or postmenopausal age.

Urine NGAL and KIM-1-Tubular Injury Biomarkers in Long-Term Survivors of Childhood Solid Tumors: A Cross-Sectional Study.

The deterioration of renal function after childhood solid tumors treatment is the result of using the intensive multimodal therapy. In recent years, urinary kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1) and urinary neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) have been introduced as potential promising biomarkers of early kidney damage. The aim of the present study was to determine whether anticancer treatment has any effect on the concentration of KIM-1 and NGAL and its association with renal impairment in survivors of childhood solid tumors. Sixty patients previously treated for solid tumors were involved in this study. The median time after end of treatment was 8.35 years. Urine KIM-1 and NGAL levels were measured using immunoenzymatic ELISA commercial kits. Higher levels of urine NGAL, KIM-1/cr. (creatinine), and NGAL/cr. ratios were found in comparison with healthy controls (p < 0.0001). Among all subjects, 23% were found to have decreased estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). A strong correlation between KIM-1/cr. and a cumulative dose of ifosfamide was observed (r = 0.865, p < 0.05). In addition, a moderate correlation between NGAL/cr. and a cumulative dose of cisplatin was identified (r = 0.534, p < 0.05). The AUC for KIM-1/cr. was 0.52, whereas NGAL/cr. showed a diagnostic profile describing the AUC of 0.67. Univariable regression showed significant associations between NGAL/cr. ratio and subjects after unilateral nephrectomy (coeff. 63.8, p = 0.007), cumulative dose of cisplatin (coeff. 0.111, p = 0.033), and age at diagnosis (coeff. 3.75, p = 0.023). The multivariable model demonstrated only cumulative dose of cisplatin as an independent factor influence on NGAL/cr. ratio. The results of our study showed increased levels of urine KIM-1 and NGAL many years after completion of the childhood solid tumors treatment, which correlated positively with a cumulative dose of ifosfamide and cisplatin. This study also suggests that unilateral nephrectomy could affect the concentration of the studied biomarkers.

Urine NGAL and KIM-1: tubular injury markers in acute lymphoblastic leukemia survivors.

INTRODUCTION: Nephrotoxicity is a potential adverse effect of anticancer treatment in childhood. Cytostatics, abdominal radiotherapy, total body irradiation (TBI) and some agents used in supportive care may induce acute kidney injury (AKI) or lead to chronic kidney disease (CKD). The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis whether urinary kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1) and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) are increased in acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) survivors. METHOD: The study cohort consisted of 86 patients (42 females) previously treated for ALL. The median time after cessation of treatment was 6.55 (IQR: 1.96-9.93) years and median age at the time of study: 12 (IQR: 6.76-16.00). The control group included 53 healthy peers. Immunoenzymatic ELISA commercial kits were used to measure urine KIM-1 and NGAL levels. RESULTS: The median levels of urine uNGAL (p < 0.05), uNGAL/creatinine (cr.) ratio (p < 0.0001) and uKIM-1/creatinine ratio (p < 0.0001) were significantly higher in ALL survivors in comparison with healthy controls. Female patients had significantly higher levels of NGAL and NGAL/cr. than males (mean 8.42 ± 7.1 vs. 4.59 ± 4.5 ng/mL and 86.57 ± 77 vs. 37.7 ± 37 ng/mg, respectively; p < 0.01). Of all the study participants, 11 (13%) presented eGFR below 90 mL/min/1.73 m2. The NGAL/cr. ratio seemed to be the best predictor of decreased eGFR (AUC = 0.65). The cumulative dose of methotrexate and cyclophosphamide did not predict the values of the urine NGAL, NGAL/cr., KIM-1/cr. and eGFR. Five years after the end of treatment, the patients had higher levels of uKIM-1 (1.02 ± 0.8 vs. 0.62 ± 0.6 ng/mL, p < 0.01), uNGAL (7.9 ± 6.7 vs. 4.6 ± 5 ng/mL, p < 0.01) and lower eGFR (114 ± 29 vs. 134 ± 35 mL/min/1.73 m2, p < 0.01) in comparison with ALL survivors with the observation period of less than 5 years. CONCLUSION: We demonstrated that ALL survivors have higher levels of urine NGAL, NGAL/cr. and uKIM-1/cr. ratio as compared to the control group. Further long-term follow-up studies are necessary to assess the significance of the NGAL and KIM-1 and their relationship to kidney damage after anticancer treatment in childhood.

The influence of different intensity of treatment on hormonal markers of gonadal function in acute lymphoblastic leukemia survivors.

Anti-cancer treatment in children can deteriorate gonadal function and affect future fertility. We analyzed the hormonal markers of gonadal function in adolescent leukemia survivors, treated in childhood with different levels of aggressiveness. We analyzed hormone levels in 69 adolescents and young adults, leukemia survivors stratified into standard (SR), intermediate (IR), and high (HR) risk groups, and in 80 healthy controls (38 men) at a similar age. We assessed follicular stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and inhibin B in the whole group, testosterone in males, and E2 and anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) in females. Males classified into HR group presented, in comparison to control, higher levels of FSH, LH, lower inhibin B, and normal testosterone, whereas in SR and IR group, the hormonal values were comparable to the control. In females, in all risk groups, the levels of FSH, LH, E2, and inhibin B were comparable with the control, but the mean AMH levels were slightly lowered. We did not observe the effect of prophylactic cranial irradiation (12 or 18 Gy) or the time of treatment (before vs. during puberty) on hormone levels. In females, a positive correlation was found between the time interval after the end of treatment and AMH levels. Male leukemia survivors having undergone more intensive chemotherapy show the symptoms of disturbed spermatogenesis and need to be followed-up in the future. Women, irrespective of the risk group, can develop the signs of preterm ovarian insufficiency. They should be informed about the impact of the treatment on gonadal function.

Risk factors for premature aging in childhood cancer survivors.

Over the last decades, the overall survival rate for childhood cancer has increased from 20% to 80%, which is the result of advances in treatment. Nevertheless, most data from the international registers of childhood cancer survivors (CCS) stress that this population of patients is at high risk for late sequelae and their biological aging starts earlier in life. Anticancer therapy (chemotherapy, radiotherapy, surgery, immunotherapy) affects the intracellular processes leading to the chronic deterioration of organ function and premature senescence. The present review focuses on the late effects of anticancer treatment on various human organs that may lead to premature aging.

Adipokines and Insulin Resistance in Young Adult Survivors of Childhood Cancer.

We examined the association between adipokines (leptin, adiponectin, and resistin), radiotherapy, measurement of body fat, and insulin resistance among young adult survivors of childhood cancer (CCS). Materials and Methods. Seventy-six survivors were included (mean age 24.1 ± 3.5 years). Insulin resistance (IR) was calculated using the homeostasis model assessment (HOMA-IR). The serum levels of adipokines were assayed by immunoassays. Fat mass was evaluated by DXA. Results. Mean adiponectin level and mean body FAT were higher in the examined females than in males (10009 ± 6367 ng/mL versus 6433 ± 4136 ng/mL, p < 0.01; 35.98 ± 9.61% versus 22.7 ± 7.46%, p < 0.001). Among CCS, one of 75 patients met the criteria of insulin resistance, and in 14 patients there was impaired fasting glucose. The multiple regression model for females showed that leptin/adiponectin ratio (LA ratio) significantly affected HOMA-IR (increase of 0.024 per each unit of LA ratio; p < 0.05). Radiotherapy had no effect on serum adipokines and IR. Conclusion. The observed results support the hypothesis that adiponectin might be associated with insulin resistance and it can not be ruled out that changes in the mean level of adiponectin per FAT mass or leptin/adiponectin ratio may precede the occurrence of insulin resistance in the future.

Bone mineral density, thyroid function, and gonadal status in young adult survivors of childhood cancer.

INTRODUCTION: During the last years, changes in the diagnosis and treatment have caused a significant increase of the number of young adults who experienced cancer in childhood. This enlarging population is affected by many health problems, including multiple hormone deficiencies and bone mineral deficits. This is the first polish study assessing bone mineral density and endocrine status in young adult cancer survivors. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A total of 76 long-term survivors treated for pediatric cancer were identified. The mean age at the time of study was 24.1 ±3.5 years. Bone mineral density and TSH, fT3, fT4, FSH, LH, estradiol and testosterone level were assessed for each patient. RESULTS: Nine subjects were diagnosed with subclinical hypothyroidism. We found higher level of TSH in the study group, in comparison with control group (p = 0.015). Eighteen patients had increased level of FSH. In the study group higher number of patients with high FSH level was found in comparison with the control group (p = 0.049). A low BMD was observed in 7 patients whereas mild BMD deficits were found in 19 participants. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, our data show that young adult cancer survivors might experienced various hormonal problems including low bone mass, thyroid impairment and gonadal dysfunction. Some of the patients required treatment, but they were not diagnosed before this study. There is the lack of proper clinical assessment among adult childhood cancer survivors in Poland. Therefore, we demonstrated the need for a comprehensive plan for longitudinal follow-up for late effects in these population.