Network analysis of physical activity and depressive and affective symptoms during COVID-19 home confinement.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of this study was to analyze the network structure of physical activity, frequency, depressive, and affective symptoms in people under home isolation due to COVID-19. METHOD: A longitudinal study was conducted in two phases (beginning (March 19, 2020) and end of home confinement (April 8, 2020)). The sample consisted of 579 participants from Spain (250 men and 329 women) aged 16 to 92 years (overall sample: M = 47.06, SD = 14.52). A network analysis was performed. RESULTS: Four clusters emerged (PA, depressive symptoms, positive affect, and negative affect). A higher frequency of physical activity was related to better-sustained attention, increased alertness, and enthusiasm. In addition, feelings of guilt and shame were mitigated, and confinement distress and irritability were reduced. Physical activity also mitigated fatigue in women, whereas feelings of unhappiness were reduced in men. CONCLUSION: Physical activity seems to be an effective option for mitigating the negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Public health policymakers should develop programs to promote physical activity in order to be able to cope with confinement or similar scenarios in the future.

Factors Influencing the Likelihood of Alcohol and Tobacco Use in Adolescent Athletes: Type of Sport, Age, and Action Tendencies in Sport.

This article proposes a new approach to understand substance use among adolescent athletes. Thus, this article describes an investigation of the likelihood of alcohol and tobacco use in adolescent athletes considering the type of sport, age, gender, and their action tendencies. A total of 552 athletes with an age range of 12-16 years were engaged in medium-high-contact sports (n = 291) and non-contact sports (n = 261). They completed the Children's Action Tendency Scale, the Sport Children's Action Tendency Scale, and the Personal and Social Responsibility Questionnaire. The results showed that 16-year-old athletes were the most likely to drink alcohol and to smoke tobacco (p < 0.001). Likewise, it was found that practicing a medium-high-contact sport was a risk factor for alcohol and tobacco use (p < 0.01). The more aggressive athletes were more likely to have smoked tobacco during the last month (p = 0.019) and also to drink more alcohol that the less aggressive ones (p < 0.001). Finally, the athletes who showed more submissiveness were less likely to have drunk alcohol in the last year and the last month (p < 0.001). These findings show the predictive value of new factors associated with alcohol and tobacco use among adolescent athletes. Preventive measures should be targeted, since a new link between the action tendencies in sport and substance use has been found.

Impact of Teachers' Autonomy Support in Students' Basic Psychological Needs, Intrinsic Motivation and Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity.

The students' active participation in physical education does not always guarantee the fulfilment of the international guidelines on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). The goal of the study was to examine the effects of the teacher autonomy support on the MVPA, basic psychological needs, and intrinsic motivation of primary education students. A three-phase, crossed research design was used in four groups of primary education (grades three, four, five, and six). Eighty-three students (40 boys; 43 girls) completed three physical education sessions with three levels of teacher autonomy support: low, intermediate, and high. They wore WGT3x accelerometers and answered a questionnaire. Results showed significant differences in MVPA, autonomy, competence, and intrinsic motivation (p < 0.001) between sessions one (controlling), two (intermediate-supportive autonomy), and three (full-supportive autonomy). In session three, the students' MVPA increased to 73.70%. In conclusion, teacher's autonomy-supportive environment can be modified to increase the students' intrinsic motivation, basic physiological needs, and MVPA to reach the minimum international standards.

Self-made material in physical education: Teacher perceptions of the use of an emerging pedagogical model before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused drastic changes in education, which had to adapt to changing scenarios (online, face-to-face, hybrid teaching). Within physical education (PE), strategies such as 'do not use or share equipment' were proposed to avoid infections. These strategies fit with an emerging pedagogical model called the Self-made Material Model (SMM), which involves students creating their own PE equipment. The objectives of the present study were: (a) to analyse PE teachers' beliefs about the use of self-made material in their classes, (b) to evaluate teachers' perceptions of the impact of the use of self-made material in PE lessons during the pandemic and (c) to examine gender/age differences. A quantitative, snowball research design was followed. The Self-made Material Questionnaire ( Méndez-Giménez and Fernández-Río, 2011) comprising two scales (41 items) was adapted: Teachers' beliefs about the use of self-made material scale and Teachers' perceptions of the impact of self-made material usage during the pandemic scale. In total, 1093 in-service teachers (443 women, 40.5%; M = 41.39, SD = 9.54) from 13 Ibero-American countries participated. Descriptive statistics were calculated, Student's T test was conducted for comparisons by gender and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was run for comparisons by age ranges. Overall, the scores were high, emphasising the potential to promote recycling and students' creativity and respect for the material. Women scored higher in items such as promoting interdisciplinarity, equality, attention to disability and education in values. In total, 833 (76.21%) teachers used self-made material during the pandemic and reported high levels of satisfaction, expectations of use, usefulness and profitability. No gender differences were found. In the COVID-19 era, the SMM is playing a relevant role as a meaningful framework and a helpful teaching methodology in different educational scenarios.

A Cross-Sectional Study to Measure Physical Activity with Accelerometry in ADHD Children according to Presentations.

(1) Background: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common mental disorder affecting 5-7% of school-aged children. Previous studies have looked at the effects of physical activity interventions on the symptoms of ADHD, although few have compared the motor behavior of children with ADHD versus those without. This exploratory study provides detailed information on the patterns and intensity of physical activity and sedentary behavior in children with ADHD as measured by Actigraph GT3X accelerometry, as well as the differences in physical activity in the different presentations of ADHD; (2) Methods: A cross-sectional design was used with a sample of 75 children, aged 6 to 12 years, with and without ADHD. The ADHD group had a previous diagnosis, determined by clinical assessment based on DSM-5 criteria; (3) Results: Physical activity levels were higher in children with ADHD compared to children without ADHD, but there was no difference in sedentary time between groups during weekdays or weekends. Physical activity decreased with age, with significant differences in the ADHD group, who exhibited more minutes of moderate Physical activity in 6-7 year-olds than 10-11 year-olds during weekdays and weekends; (4) Conclusions: Sedentary time increased by age in children without ADHD, and there was a decrease in moderate-intensity physical activity time in children with ADHD by age.

Intra-individual changes in 3x2 achievement goals, friendship goals, motivational regulations and consequences in physical education / Cambios intraindividuales en las metas de logro 3x2, metas de amistad, regulaciones motivacionales y consecuencias en educación física

Abstract Introduction: This research examines intraindividual changes in 3x2 achievement goals in physical education classes during one semester, as well as the relationship of these changes with those in other motivational and outcome variables. Method: A total of 334 (178 boys and 156 girls) high school students (M = 13.12, SD = 1.05) completed five questionnaires in two different school years. Results: The results of the true intraindividual change model (TIC) provided unequivocal support for the separation of task-based and self-based goals, as well as the structures based on both valences of approach and avoidance. They also showed different intraindividual change patterns in the 3x2 achievement goals, indicating a progression in the stability of the goals depending on their definition. Intraindividual variability in achievement goals is directly related to intraindividual variability in dependent variables, with the task-approach goals TIC being the most adaptive. Conclusions: These goals should be prioritized.

Resumen Introducción: Este artículo examina el cambio intraindividual de las metas de logro 3x2 en las clases de educación física durante un semestre, así como la relación de estos cambios con los producidos en otras variables motivacionales y de resultado. Método: Un total de 334 (178 varones y 156 mujeres) estudiantes de educación secundaria (M = 13.12, DT = 1.05) completaron un cuestionario en dos cursos escolares diferentes. Resultados: Los resultados de la aplicación del modelado del verdadero cambio intraindividual (TIC) proporcionaron un claro apoyo a la separación de las metas basadas en la tarea y en el yo, así como a las estructuras basadas en ambas valencias de aproximación y evitación. También mostraron patrones de cambio intraindividual diferentes en las metas de logro 3x2 que parecen indicar una progresión en la estabilidad de las metas en función de su definición. Se observa que la variabilidad intraindividual en las metas de logro está directamente relacionada con la variabilidad intra individual en otras variables dependientes, siendo el TIC de las metas de aproximación-tarea el más adaptativo. Conclusiones: Se reafirman los beneficios de promover las metas de aproximación-tarea por encima del resto

Effects of Sleep on the Academic Performance of Children with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder.

Attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is commonly associated with disordered or disturbed sleep and the association of sleep problems with ADHD is complex and multidirectional. The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationship between sleep and academic performance, comparing children with ADHD and a control group without ADHD. Academic performance in Spanish, mathematics, and a foreign language (English) was evaluated. Different presentations of ADHD were considered as well as the potential difference between weekday and weekend sleep habits. The sample consisted of 75 children aged 6-12 in primary education. Accelerometry was used to study sleep, and school grades were used to gather information about academic performance. The results showed that ADHD influenced the amount of sleep during weekends, the time getting up at the weekends, weekday sleep efficiency, as well as academic performance. Given the effects that were seen in the variables linked to the weekend, it is necessary to consider a longitudinal design with which to determine if there is a cause and effect relationship.

Physical Activity and Prevention of Depressive Symptoms in the Spanish Population during Confinement due to COVID-19.

BACKGROUND: In March 2020, the Spanish government established an official lockdown across the country in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and confined the population to their homes, restricting their mobility. The objectives of the study are twofold: a) to examine dose-response relationships between physical activity (PA) components (volume, intensity, frequency, duration) and depressive symptoms of the population during confinement, and b) to identify the optimal levels of PA to mitigate notable depressive symptoms (NDS). METHODS: 4,811 (2,952 women) Spanish citizens, age range 16-92 years, completed an online questionnaire (snowball sampling) to measure their levels of depressive symptoms, PA, and various anthropometric and sociometric variables. Volume (METs-min/week), frequency (days/week), and duration (hours) were examined using logistic regressions with restricted cubic splines. RESULTS: The PA components were inversely associated with NDS. Performing at least 477 METs-min/week was associated with a 33% decrease in probability of NDS, and reaching 3,000 METs-min/week was associated with the lowest risk of NDS (47%). As for frequency, with 10 times/week the probability of NDS was 56% lower. At 10 hours of weekly practice, the probability of NDS was 39% lower. CONCLUSIONS: A range and optimal amount of PA is suggested to reduce the appearance of SDN during confinement.

A longitudinal study on depressive symptoms and physical activity during the Spanish lockdown.

Background/Objective: The aim was to evaluate the evolution of depressive symptoms and to explore the influence of physical activity (PA) practice during the home confinement due to the COVID-19 outbreak in Spain. Method: Information was collected from 595 confined participants who reported personal and contextual information, depressive symptoms and PA levels at four time points. Results: The changes in depressive symptoms were analyzed using a linear mixed model with cubic splines. Results showed a significant increase, with a significant rise between T1 and T2 (OR = 2.38, 95% CI = 1.83-3.10). It continued growing until T4 (OR = 2.93, 95% CI = 1.97-4.38). A negative relationship was observed between the increase in depressive symptoms and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) levels, with a significant slope up to 4 hours of MVPA per week (OR = 0.51, 95% CI = 0.29-0.90) that tended to increase until 16 hours per week of MVPA (OR = 0.41, 95% CI = 0.20-0.87). Conclusions: Results from a partition model showed that moderate intensity of PA could be enough to prevent an increase of depressive symptoms during home isolation.

Antecedentes/Objetivo: El objetivo fue evaluar la evolución de los síntomas depresivos y explorar la influencia de la práctica de actividad física (AF) durante la fase de confinamiento domiciliario de la población española como consecuencia de la enfermedad del coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19). Método: Participaron 595 personas confinadas que informaron de su situación personal, los síntomas depresivos y la AF en cuatro momentos de medida. Resultados: Los cambios en los síntomas depresivos analizados con splines cúbicos a partir de modelos lineales mixtos, mostraron un incremento significativo, con una subida importante entre el T1 y el T2 (OR = 2,38, 95% CI = 1,83-3,10), para luego seguir incrementándose de manera más lenta hasta el T4 (OR = 2,93, 95% CI = 1,97-4,38). Se observó una relación inversa entre el incremento de los síntomas depresivos y los niveles de actividad física moderada-vigorosa (AFMV) semanal, con una pendiente importante hasta las cuatro horas de AFMV a la semana (OR = 0,51, 95% CI = 0,29-0,90) que tiende a disminuir hasta las 16 horas/semana AFMV (OR = 0,41, 95% CI = 0,20-0,87). Conclusiones: Se probó un modelo de partición que mostró que la AF de intensidad moderada podría ser suficiente para prevenir un incremento de los síntomas depresivos en situación de confinamiento.

Resilience and physical activity in people under home isolation due to COVID-19: A preliminary evaluation.

BACKGROUND: The recent shelter-in-place order issued by the Spanish government (due to the outbreak of the COVID-19) forced the Spanish population to self-isolate at home. The psychological and social effects of this new situation are unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the impact of such scenario on citizens' resilience, as well as the connections between resilience, physical activity (PA), gender, weight and body mass index (BMI) before and after confinement, and COVID-19-related information. METHODS: A total of 1795 people answered an online questionnaire conducted on March 21st, , 2020, seven days after the mandatory shelter-in-place health order was issued. RESULTS: Results showed that individuals who regularly engaged in Vigorous PA during the first week of confinement reported higher resilience in terms of higher locus of control, higher self-efficacy, and higher optimism. Moreover, inter-personal resilience differences were observed based on gender, age groups, BMI, weight, and people living with dependent persons or under health risk conditions. CONCLUSION: To the best of our knowledge, these findings are the first quantitative evidence pointing towards a link between engagement in Vigorous PA and resilience within the COVID-19 restrictions in Spain. These findings may have important implications for general population during the course of this pandemic, or future ones.

COVID-19, Psychological Well-being and Physical Activity Levels in Older Adults During the Nationwide Lockdown in Spain.

OBJECTIVE: The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has forced nationwide lockdowns in many countries. As a result, most of the Spanish population had to self-isolate at home. The physical and psychological consequences of this unexpected scenario could be particularly worrisome for people older than 60 years. This study is aimed to examine the psychological well-being of older adults during the home isolation due to the COVID-19 pandemic and to investigate whether meeting the World Health Organization's global recommendations on physical activity (PA) for health is associated with their resilience, affect, and depressive symptoms. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: In this cross-sectional study, a total of 483 citizens whose ages ranged from 60 to 92 years (overall sample: M = 65.49, SD = 5.14) were recruited via a snowball sampling strategy to answer to an online questionnaire. MEASUREMENTS: The four instruments used were The Connor-Davidson CD-RISC resilience scale, The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, the six-item self-report scale of Depressive Symptoms, and The international Physical Activity Questionnaire. RESULTS: Results showed that older adults who regularly engaged in vigorous (VPA) and moderate-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) during the quarantine reported higher scores in resilience (Locus, Self-efficacy, and Optimism), positive affect, and lower in depressive symptoms. CONCLUSION: These finding are the first quantitative evidence pointing toward a link between engagement in VPA and/or MVPA and resilience, positive affect, and depressive symptoms within the COVID-19 restrictions in Spain. Acknowledging these associations may be important in developing health promotion programs for older people during the remaining period of confinement or future ones.

Weight changes during the COVID-19 home confinement. Effects on psychosocial variables.

INTRODUCTION: The goal was to assess individuals' weight changes and their connections with depressive symptoms, optimism and physical activity. METHOD: 4379 Spanish citizens, 16-84 years, participated. RESULTS: Most participants declared no weight changes. Males, young and obese individuals had greater weight variability. Depressive symptoms were linked to larger weight changes. Optimism and MVPA followed a descending pattern from ≥-3 kg. MVPA minutes/week and fulfilling physical activity recommendations were inversely associated to weight changes. CONCLUSION: The COVID-19 confinement impacted individuals' weight, expanding depreobesity to include weight loss. Optimism and physical activity seemed to be "protective elements".

Competencia percibida (tridimensional), regulaciones motivacionales y autoeficacia en educación física / Perceived competence (three-dimensional), motivational regulations and self-efficacy in physical education

Resumen Pese a la evolución del marco de metas de logro 3 × 2, la investigación sobre los tres referentes de competencia y su relación con variables motivacionales en estudiantes de educación primaria es inexistente. Los objetivos de la investigación fueron dos: (a) examinar la validez estructural del Cuestionario Tridimensional de Competencia Percibida en Educación Física, y (b) analizar los patrones predictivos de las dimensiones de competencia sobre las regulaciones motivacionales y la autoeficacia en el aprendizaje. Participaron 502 estudiantes (242 chicas) de 4.º y 5.º de educación primaria de 11 colegios del norte de España. Los resultados del CFA (análisis factorial confirmatorio), así como de otros modelos (ESEM, CFA-bifactor y ESEM-bifactor) apoyaron el modelo hipotético (tridimensional). Los parámetros del modelo testado se mantuvieron invariantes a través del sexo. La validez y consistencia interna fueron satisfactorias. Los análisis de regresión mostraron patrones predictivos de competencia-yo y competencia-tarea más adaptativos que los de competencia-otro. Los resultados respaldan los postulados del modelo tridimensional de metas de logro y sugieren la diferenciación de tres estándares de competencia desde primaria. Se deberían enfatizar referentes intrapersonales y absolutos, y priorizar el desarrollo de la competencia-yo.

Abstract Abstract Despite the evolution of the 3 × 2 achievement goal framework, research on three references of competence and its relationship with motivational variables in primary school students is non-existent. The objectives of this research were two: (a) to examine the structural validity of the Questionnaire of Three-dimensional Perceived Competence in Physical Education, and (b) to analyze the predictive patterns of the dimensions of competence on motivational regulations and self-efficacy in learning. A sample of 502 (242 girls) 4th and 5th primary students from 11 schools in northern Spain participated. The results of the CFA, as well as other models (ESEM, CFA-bifactor and ESEM-bifactor) supported the hypothetical model (three-dimensional). The parameters of the tested model were kept invariant through sex. The validity and internal consistency were satisfactory. Regression analysis showed predictive patterns of self-competence and task-competence more adaptive than those of other-competence. The results support the postulates of a three-dimensional achievement goal model and suggest the differentiation of three competence standards from primary education. Intrapersonal and absolute referents should be emphasized, and prioritize the development of self-competence.

A multi-theoretical approach of the students' motivational profiles in physical education: achievement and social goals.

BACKGROUND: The objective was to analyze the joint profiles of social goals (responsibility, relation and friendship) and 2 x 2 achievement goals, and the pattern of their relationship with the motivation types of the self-determination continuum in Physical Education settings. METHOD: The sample consisted of 516 Secondary Education students (267 men, 249 women) aged between 12 and 17 years old ( M = 14.48, SD = 1.59). Cluster analysis and a MANOVA 2 (gender) x 4 (goal profiles) were performed. RESULTS: Cluster analysis showed four motivational profiles: "high social and mastery-approach goals", "intermediate social goals", "high social and achievement goals", and "low social and intermediate achievement goals". The "high social and mastery-approach goals" cluster was shown to be the most self-determined, followed by the "high social and achievement goals" cluster. CONCLUSION: This research emphasizes the value of social goals and helps to understand the motivational profiles of physical education students from a more holistic framework. It suggests that responsibility, friendship, and relation goals should be prioritized along with mastery-approach goals (but not performance goals) in order to increase students' self-determined motivation in Physical Education.

Validación del Cuestionario de Clima Motivacional 3x2 en educación física / Validity of the 3x2 Motivational Climate Questionnaire for Physical Education

Resumen Esta investigación aborda dos objetivos: a) examinar la validez de constructo del Cuestionario de Clima Motivacional 3x2 en Educación Física, y b) estudiar las relaciones entre las seis estructuras de clima motivacional y variables consecuentes. En el estudio 1 participaron 192 estudiantes de secundaria (M = 15.57 años). El Análisis Factorial Confirmatorio apoyó el modelo hipotético que, comparado con 10 modelos alternativos, produjo el mejor ajuste a los datos. En el estudio 2 se reexaminó el modelo con estudiantes más jóvenes (N = 299; M = 13.14 años), y se realizaron análisis de regresión para explorar los tipos de clima motivacional como predictores de variables dependientes. Se produjeron evidencias de patrones predictivos diferenciales entre las estructuras de clima basadas en la tarea y el yo.

Abstract This research had two goals: a) examine the construct validity of the 3x2 Motivational Climate Questionnaire for Physical Education, and b) assess the relations among the six structures of motivational climate and relevant consequences. In study 1, 192 secondary students participated (M = 15.57 years). Confirmatory factorial analysis strongly supported the theoretical model. Internal consistency and validity were also satisfactory. The hypothesized model was compared with other 10 alternative models, but the first one showed the best fit to the data. In study 2, the model was re-examined with younger secondary educations students (N = 299; 145 men and 154 women; M = 13.14 years). Multiple regression analyses were conducted to explore the different types of motivational climates as predictors of several variables.

Understanding olympic champions and their achievement goal orientation, dominance and pursuit and motivational regulations: A case study.

BACKGROUND: The goal was to compare the achievement goal profile and the motivational regulations of one world-class and two high-level athletes during their preparation for the Rio Olympic Games. METHOD: Three kayakers from the Spanish Olympic team participated. One (P1) and two (P2) were high-level athletes: finalists at the World and European championships, and several national championships. Participant three (P3) was a world-class athlete: 2 Olympic medals, 7 World championship medals, 4 European championship medals, and several national championships. Before and after three training sessions and 4 international competitions (including World and European championships) all participants completed a questionnaire to assess their achievement goal orientation, dominance and pursuit, as well as their motivational regulation. Generalized estimated equations (GEE) analysis was used to assess significant differences between subjects. RESULTS: P3 had lower performance-approach goal orientation, stronger mastery-approach goal dominance, lower performance-approach and performance-avoidance goal pursuit, higher mastery-avoidance goal pursuit and lower controlled motivation than the other two participants. CONCLUSION: Our world-class athlete has a strong mastery-approach achievement goal dominant profile, and a low performance-oriented profile (both approach and avoidance) and controlled motivation. This profile should be confirmed in similar athletes to help coaches and their young athletes make appropriate decisions.

Does Context, Practice or Competition affect Female Athletes' Achievement Goal Dominance, Goal Pursuit, Burnout and Motivation?

The goal of this study was to assess the effects of two different achievement sport contexts, practice and competition, on the motivational profile of professional/semi-professional athletes. Forty-eight Spanish national/international-level female athletes (basketball = 18; handball = 12; soccer = 11; volleyball = 7), mean age 25.14 ± 3.43 years, agreed to participate in the study. They completed a questionnaire, prior and after training and competition, to assess achievement goals, achievement goal dominance, goal pursuit, motivational climate, motivation, burnout and perceived recovery-exertion. Data analyses revealed that, both in practice and competition, these team-sport athletes overwhelmingly showed a strong mastery-approach achievement goal in dominance as well as in pursuit. A significant finding was that this group of national/international-level, professional/semi-professional athletes not only adopted a mastery-approach achievement goal, but they also actively pursued it. It is also remarkable that this profile remained stable at post-tests, even after a painful defeat in competition, which produced a significant negative effect on the athletes' burnout (emotional and physical exhaustion and devaluation of sport participation) and self-determined motivation. As expected, the difference between total recovery and perceived exertion significantly increased after practice and competition. National/international-level team-sport professional/semi-professional female athletes held and pursue stable mastery-approach goal dominance.

3x2 Classroom Goal Structures, Motivational Regulations, Self-Concept, and Affectivity in Secondary School.

The main objective was to analyze relationships and predictive patterns between 3x2 classroom goal structures (CGS), and motivational regulations, dimensions of self-concept, and affectivity in the context of secondary education. A sample of 1,347 secondary school students (56.6% young men, 43.4% young women) from 10 different provinces of Spain agreed to participate (M age = 13.43, SD = 1.05). Hierarchical regression analyses indicated the self-approach CGS was the most adaptive within the spectrum of self-determination, followed by the task-approach CGS. The other-approach CGS had an ambivalent influence on motivation. Task-approach and self-approach CGS predicted academic self-concept (p < .01; p < .001, respectively; R 2 = .134), and both along with other-approach CGS (negatively) predicted family self-concept (p < .05; p < .001; p < .01, respectively; R 2 = .064). Physical self-concept was predicted by the task-approach and other-approach CGS's (p < .05; p < .001, respectively; R 2 = .078). Finally, positive affect was predicted by all three approach-oriented CGS's (p < .001; R 2 = .137), whereas negative affect was predicted by other-approach (positively) and self-approach (negatively) CGS (p < .001; p < .05, respectively; R 2 = .028). These results expand the 3x2 achievement goal framework to include environmental factors, and reiterate that teachers should focus on raising levels of self- and task-based goals for students in their classes.

The effect of a self-constructed material on children's physical activity during recess.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze whether an intervention supported by free play with a self-constructed material increases the level of physical activity of students during recess. METHODS: The participants were 166 children of third to sixth grade, between nine and 12 years old (average = 10.64; SS = 1.13). An experimental project was conducted with pre-test and post-test measurement, and a control group. Experimental group participants built cardboard paddles (third and fourth) and flying rings (fifth and sixth), a material they used freely for one week during recess. ActiGraph-GT3X accelerometers were used to measure physical activity. An ANOVA of repeated measures was used to find differences between groups and genders. RESULTS: Significant intervention effects were found in the analyzed variables: sedentary activity (F = 38.19; p < 0.01), light (F = 76.56; p < 0.01), moderate (F = 27.44; p < 0.01), vigorous (F = 61.55; p < 0.01), and moderate and vigorous (F = 68.76; p < 0.01). Significant gender differences were shown (time × group × gender) for moderate (F = 6.58; p < 0.05) and vigorous (F = 5.51; p < 0.05) activity. CONCLUSIONS: The self-constructed material is effective to increase the physical activity levels of children during recess; it decreases sedentary activity and light physical activity and increases the time devoted to moderate physical activity and vigorous physical activity, both in boys and in girls. The boys had an increase in vigorous physical activity and the girls in moderate physical activity. Due to its low cost, this strategy is recommended for administrators and teachers to increase the physical activity of children during recess. OBJETIVO: Analizar si una intervención basada en el juego libre con material autoconstruido aumenta el nivel de actividad física de los escolares durante el recreo. MÉTODOS: Participaron 166 niños de tercero a sexto de educación primaria, de entre nueve y 12 años de edad (media = 10,64; DE = 1,13). Se realizó un diseño experimental con medidas pretest y postest, y un grupo control. Los participantes del grupo experimental construyeron palas de cartón (tercero y cuarto) y aros voladores (quinto y sexto), material que usaron libremente durante una semana en los recreos. Se utilizaron acelerómetros ActiGraph-GT3X para medir la actividad física. Se usó un ANOVA de medidas repetidas para investigar las diferencias entre grupos y sexo. RESULTADOS: Se encontraron efectos de intervención significativos en las variables analizadas: actividad sedentaria (F = 38,19; p < 0,01), ligera (F = 76,56; p < 0,01), moderada (F = 27,44; p < 0,01), vigorosa (F = 61,55; p < 0,01), y moderada y vigorosa (F = 68,76; p < 0,01). Emergieron diferencias significativas de sexo (tiempo x grupo x sexo) para la actividad moderada (F = 6,58; p < 0,05) y vigorosa (F = 5,51; p < 0,05). CONCLUSIONES: El material autoconstruido es eficaz para aumentar los niveles de actividad física de los niños en el recreo; disminuye la actividad sedentaria y la actividad física ligera, y aumenta el tiempo dedicado a la actividad física moderada y actividad física vigorosa, tanto en varones como en mujeres. Los varones aumentaron más la actividad física vigorosa y las mujeres, la actividad física moderada. Por su bajo coste, se recomienda esta estrategia a gestores y profesores para incrementar la actividad física de los niños durante el recreo.

Self-Regulation, Cooperative Learning, and Academic Self-Efficacy: Interactions to Prevent School Failure.

Learning to learn and learning to cooperate are two important goals for individuals. Moreover, self regulation has been identified as fundamental to prevent school failure. The goal of the present study was to assess the interactions between self-regulated learning, cooperative learning and academic self-efficacy in secondary education students experiencing cooperative learning as the main pedagogical approach for at least one school year. 2.513 secondary education students (1.308 males, 1.205 females), 12-17 years old (M = 13.85, SD = 1.29), enrolled in 17 different schools belonging to the National Network of Schools on Cooperative Learning in Spain agreed to participate. They all had experienced this pedagogical approach a minimum of one school year. Participants were asked to complete the cooperative learning questionnaire, the strategies to control the study questionnaire and the global academic self-efficacy questionnaire. Participants were grouped based on their perceptions on cooperative learning and self-regulated learning in their classes. A combination of hierarchical and κ-means cluster analyses was used. Results revealed a four-cluster solution: cluster one included students with low levels of cooperative learning, self-regulated learning and academic self-efficacy, cluster two included students with high levels of cooperative learning, self-regulated learning and academic self-efficacy, cluster three included students with high levels of cooperative learning, low levels of self-regulated learning and intermediate-low levels of academic self-efficacy, and, finally, cluster four included students with high levels of self-regulated learning, low levels of cooperative learning, and intermediate-high levels of academic self-efficacy. Self-regulated learning was found more influential than cooperative learning on students' academic self-efficacy. In cooperative learning contexts students interact through different types of regulations: self, co, and shared. Educators should be aware of these interactions, symmetrical or asymmetrical, because they determine the quality and quantity of the students' participation and achievements, and they are key elements to prevent school failure.