A physiological analysis of color vision in batoid elasmobranchs.

The potential for color vision in elasmobranchs has been studied in detail; however, a high degree of variation exists among the group. Evidence for ultraviolet (UV) vision is lacking, despite the presence of UV vision in every other vertebrate class. An integrative physiological approach was used to investigate color and ultraviolet vision in cownose rays and yellow stingrays, two batoids that inhabit different spectral environments. Both species had peaks in UV, short, medium, and long wavelength spectral regions in dark-, light-, and chromatic-adapted electroretinograms. Although no UV cones were found with microspectrophotometric analysis, both rays had multiple cone visual pigments with λ max at 470 and 551 nm in cownose rays (Rhinoptera bonasus) and 475, 533, and 562 nm in yellow stingrays (Urobatis jamaicensis). The same analysis demonstrated that both species had rod λ max at 500 and 499 nm, respectively. The lens and cornea of cownose rays maximally transmitted wavelengths greater than 350 nm and greater than 376 nm in yellow stingrays. These results support the potential for color vision in these species and future investigations should reveal the extent to which color discrimination is significant in a behavioral context.

Comparative visual function in predatory fishes from the Indian River Lagoon.

Visual temporal resolution and spectral sensitivity of three coastal teleost species (common snook [Centropomus undecimalis], gray snapper [Lutjanus griseus], and pinfish [Lagodon rhomboides]) were investigated by electroretinogram. Temporal resolution was quantified under photopic and scotopic conditions using response waveform dynamics and maximum critical flicker fusion frequency (CFFmax). Photopic CFFmax was significantly higher than scotopic CFFmax in all species. The snapper had the shortest photoreceptor response latency time (26.7 ms) and the highest CFFmax (47 Hz), suggesting that its eyes are adapted for a brighter photic environment. In contrast, the snook had the longest response latency time (36.8 ms) and lowest CFFmax (40 Hz), indicating that its eyes are adapted for a dimmer environment or nocturnal lifestyle. Species spectral responses ranged from 360 to 620 nm and revealed the presence of rods sensitive to dim and twilight conditions, as well as multiple cone visual pigments providing the basis for color and contrast discrimination. Collectively, our results demonstrate differences in visual function among species inhabiting the Indian River Lagoon system, representative of their unique ecology and life histories.

Linking sensory biology and fisheries bycatch reduction in elasmobranch fishes: a review with new directions for research.

Incidental capture, or bycatch, in fisheries represents a substantial threat to the sustainability of elasmobranch populations worldwide. Consequently, researchers are increasingly investigating elasmobranch bycatch reduction methods, including some focused on these species' sensory capabilities, particularly their electrosensory systems. To guide this research, we review current knowledge of elasmobranch sensory biology and feeding ecology with respect to fishing gear interactions and include examples of bycatch reduction methods used for elasmobranchs as well as other taxonomic groups. We discuss potential elasmobranch bycatch reduction strategies for various fishing gear types based on the morphological, physiological, and behavioural characteristics of species within this diverse group. In select examples, we indicate how an understanding of the physiology and sensory biology of vulnerable, bycatch-prone, non-target elasmobranch species can help in the identification of promising options for bycatch reduction. We encourage collaboration among researchers studying bycatch reduction across taxa to provide better understanding of the broad effects of bycatch reduction methods.

Temporal resolution and spectral sensitivity of the visual system of three coastal shark species from different light environments.

Visual temporal resolution and scotopic spectral sensitivity of three coastal shark species (bonnethead Sphyrna tiburo, scalloped hammerhead Sphyrna lewini, and blacknose shark Carcharhinus acronotus) were investigated by electroretinogram. Temporal resolution was quantified under photopic and scotopic conditions using response waveform dynamics and maximum critical flicker-fusion frequency (CFF). Photopic CFF(max) was significantly higher than scotopic CFF(max) in all species. The bonnethead had the shortest photoreceptor response latency time (23.5 ms) and the highest CFF(max) (31 Hz), suggesting that its eyes are adapted for a bright photic environment. In contrast, the blacknose had the longest response latency time (34.8 ms) and lowest CFF(max) (16 Hz), indicating its eyes are adapted for a dimmer environment or nocturnal lifestyle. Scotopic spectral sensitivity revealed maximum peaks (480 nm) in the bonnethead and blacknose sharks that correlated with environmental spectra measured during twilight, which is a biologically relevant period of heightened predation.

Visual fields of four batoid fishes: a comparative study.

The visual fields of elasmobranch fishes are not well characterized even though this is a fundamental element of the visual system. The batoid fishes (skates, rays) form a monophyletic clade within the subclass Elasmobranchii and exhibit a broad range of morphologies and corresponding ecologies. We hypothesized that their visual field characteristics would reflect their diverse morphology and ecology. This was tested by quantifying the monocular, binocular and cyclopean horizontal and vertical visual fields of four batoid species (Raja eglanteria, Urobatis jamaicensis, Dasyatis sabina and Rhinoptera bonasus) that encompassed a range from a basal skate to a more derived ray. The horizontal and vertical visual fields differed significantly among species; however, all species possessed horizontal anterior and dorsal binocular overlaps. Urobatis jamaicensis, a small reef-associated stingray, demonstrated a 360 degrees panoramic visual field in the horizontal plane, and R. bonasus, a schooling benthopelagic ray, a 360 degrees panoramic view in the vertical plane. Large anterior binocular overlaps were measured in D. sabina (72 degrees ) and R. bonasus (46 degrees ) but came at the expense of large posterior blind areas. The anterior binocular overlaps in R. eglanteria (28 degrees ) and U. jamaicensis (34 degrees ) were smaller but were coupled with large monocular fields that provided expansive peripheral views. The most phylogenetically basal species, the clearnose skate (Raja eglanteria), had the most reduced visual field in contrast to the more derived ray species. To our knowledge, this study represents the first comparative assessment of visual fields in basal vertebrates.

Comparative thyroid hormone concentration in maternal serum and yolk of the bonnethead shark (Sphyrna tiburo) from two sites along the coast of Florida.

Maternally provisioned yolk hormones have been determined to play critical roles in development across vertebrate taxa. This study ascertained the presence and concentration of thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T(3)) and thyroxine (T(4)) in the maternal serum and yolk of the developing placental viviparous shark Sphyrna tiburo from one site adjacent to Tampa Bay and another within Florida Bay, Florida, USA. The developmental profile of T(3) in yolk showed a steady increase from pre-ovulation to post-ovulation and peaked to its highest concentration during the pregnancy stage. There was an increase in the T(3)/T(4) ratio in yolk during the pregnancy stage which suggests a possible increase in the conversion of T(4) to T(3) within yolk, possible embryonic endogenous production, or passive uptake of T(3) from uterine fluids. Similar to the pattern seen in yolk, maternal serum T(3) concentrations tended to increase as development progressed. The concentration of T(3) and T(4) in yolk from Tampa Bay was consistently higher than in yolk from Florida Bay. The differences in the patterns of thyroid hormones from these two locations may explain previously reported differences in the rate of embryonic development in the two locations.