Maternity care for women from ethnic minority backgrounds in North-West England: A grounded theory study.

AIM: To understand the maternity experiences of women from minority ethnic groups who had given birth in an NHS trust in the North-West of England, and experiences of midwives caring for them. BACKGROUND: Women from minority ethnic groups have poorer maternity outcomes compared with other women. Research about maternity experiences of women from minority ethnic groups is limited but suggests that they have poorer experiences. METHOD: Constructivist grounded theory was used as the framework for the study. Thirteen women and sixteen midwives were interviewed to elicit views and maternity experiences of women from minority ethnic groups. Interviews were transcribed, analysed, and focused codes developed into theoretical codes resulting in an emergent grounded theory. FINDINGS: Four sub-categories emerged: 'I was feeling protected', 'it is just literally empowering them, 'it will affect them more', and 'if people speak out it will help other people'. These sub-categories generated a substantive theory: 'striving towards equity and women centred care'. DISCUSSION: Culturally sensitive, relational care made women feel safe and trust their care providers. Information provision led to reassurance and enabled women to make choices about their care. Midwives' workload compromised care provision and disproportionally affected women from minority ethnic groups, especially those who do not speak English. Women from minority groups are less likely to complain and be represented in feedback. CONCLUSION: Culturally sensitive care is meeting the individual needs of many women; however, non- English speakers are disproportionally and negatively affected by midwives' workload, attitudes, or service challenges, reducing their reassurance and choice.

An exploration of women's lived experiences of care and support following perinatal death in South-Western Nigeria: A hermeneutic phenomenological study.

BACKGROUND: Perinatal death results in long-lasting intense grief for bereaved mothers with a potential to negatively impact on their short- and long-term outcomes and quality of life if inadequately supported in coping with and managing their experience. AIM: This study aimed at exploring the lived experience of women, of care and support following perinatal death in South-Western, Nigeria. METHODS: A qualitative methodology using Heideggerian phenomenology was used. Fourteen women who had experienced perinatal death in South-Western Nigeria within the last (5) five years were interviewed, and Van Manen's approach to hermeneutic phenomenology was used in data analysis. FINDINGS: Four main themes were identified: "they did not tell me the baby died", "response of health care professionals after the baby died", "moving on from hospital", and "support from family". The physical health status of mothers determined how they were informed of perinatal death. Health care professionals were distant, rude, nonempathetic and did not offer emotional support, in some cases. Mothers were given opportunity to see and hold their babies. There was no routine follow-up support in the community, besides a postnatal check-up appointment offered to all mothers regardless of their birth outcome. Family provided emotional support for mothers on discharge. CONCLUSION: This study was the first to explore the lived experience of women of the care and support following perinatal death in South-Western, Nigeria. There is a need for healthcare systems to review bereavement care and support provisions for women who experience perinatal death.

'There is trauma all round': A qualitative study of health workers' experiences of caring for parents after stillbirth in Kenya and Uganda.

BACKGROUND: Stillbirth is a traumatic life-event for parents. Compassionate care from health workers supports grief and adjustment, alleviating psychological distress and minimising serious adverse health and social consequences. Bereavement support in facilities in LMICs, including in sub-Saharan Africa, often fails to meet parents' needs. However, very few studies have explored health worker's experiences in these settings. AIM: To explore the lived experiences of midwives, doctors and others, caring for women after stillbirth in Kenya and Uganda. METHODS: Qualitative, guided by Heideggerian phenomenology. Sixty-one health workers, including nurse-midwives (N = 37), midwives (N = 12) and doctors (N = 10), working in five facilities in Kenya and Uganda, were interviewed. Data were analysed following Van Manen's reflexive approach. RESULTS: Three main themes summarised participants' experiences: 'In the mud and you learn to swim in it' reflected a perceived of lack of preparation; skills were gained through experience and often without adequate support. The emotional and psychological impacts including sadness, frustration, guilt and shame were summarised in 'It's bad, it's a sad experience'. Deficiencies in organisational culture and support, which entrenched blame, fear and negative behaviours were encapsulated in Nobody asks 'how are you doing?'. CONCLUSION: Health workers in Kenya and Uganda were deeply sensitive to the impacts of stillbirth for women and families, and often profoundly and personally affected. Care and psychological support were acknowledged as often inadequate. Interventions to support improved bereavement care in sub-Saharan Africa need to target increasing health worker knowledge and awareness and also embed supportive organisational cultures and processes.

Women's experiences of care and support following perinatal death in high burden countries: A metasynthesis.

PROBLEM: The experiences of women in low and middle-income countries following perinatal death remains difficult and challenging, thereby increasing their susceptibility to negative psychological impact particularly with insufficient bereavement care and support. BACKGROUND: Perinatal death invariably brings intense grief which significantly impacts women, and requires adequate bereavement care to limit negative outcomes in the short and long-term. AIM: To develop deeper understanding of women's experience of care and support following perinatal death in high burden settings. METHODS: Six electronic databases were searched with relevant terms established using the SPIDER tool, supplemented by hand search of reference lists. Studies were independently screened for inclusion by all authors. Meta-ethnography (Noblit and Hare,1988) was used to synthesise existing qualitative studies. FINDINGS: Eight studies conducted in Sub-Saharan African and South Asian countries namely South Africa, Uganda, Ghana, Kenya, India and Malawi were included, and three main themes were identified; mothers' reaction to their baby's death, care and support after perinatal death, and coping strategies in the absence of care and support. Perinatal death was not appropriately acknowledged therefore care and support was inadequate and, in some cases, non-existent. Consequently, mothers resorted to adopting coping strategies as they were unable to express their grief. DISCUSSION: There is insufficient care and support for women following perinatal death in high burden settings. CONCLUSIONS: Further research is required into the care and support being given by healthcare professionals and families in high burden settings, thereby ultimately aiding the development of guidance on perinatal bereavement care.

Better maternity care pathways in pregnancies after stillbirth or neonatal death: a feasibility study.

BACKGROUND: Around 1 in 150 babies are stillborn or die in the first month of life in the UK. Most women conceive again, and subsequent pregnancies are often characterised by feelings of stress and anxiety, persisting beyond the birth. Psychological distress increases the risk of poor pregnancy outcomes and longer-term parenting difficulties. Appropriate emotional support in subsequent pregnancies is key to ensure the wellbeing of women and families. Substantial variability in existing care has been reported, including fragmentation and poor communication. A new care package improving midwifery continuity and access to emotional support during subsequent pregnancy could improve outcomes. However, no study has assessed the feasibility of a full-scale trial to test effectiveness in improving outcomes and cost-effectiveness for the National Health Service (NHS). METHODS: A prospective, mixed-methods pre-and post-cohort study, in two Northwest England Maternity Units. Thirty-eight women, (≤ 20 weeks' gestation, with a previous stillbirth, or neonatal death) were offered the study intervention (allocation of a named midwife care coordinator and access to group and online support). Sixteen women receiving usual care were recruited in the 6 months preceding implementation of the intervention. Outcome data were collected at 2 antenatal and 1 postnatal visit(s). Qualitative interviews captured experiences of care and research processes with women (n = 20), partners (n = 5), and midwives (n = 8). RESULTS: Overall recruitment was 90% of target, and 77% of women completed the study. A diverse sample reflected the local population, but non-English speaking was a barrier to participation. Study processes and data collection methods were acceptable. Those who received increased midwifery continuity valued the relationship with the care coordinator and perceived positive impacts on pregnancy experiences. However, the anticipated increase in antenatal continuity for direct midwife contacts was not observed for the intervention group. Take-up of in-person support groups was also limited. CONCLUSIONS: Women and partners welcomed the opportunity to participate in research. Continuity of midwifery care was supported as a beneficial strategy to improve care and support in pregnancy after the death of a baby by both parents and professionals. Important barriers to implementation included changes in leadership, service pressures and competing priorities. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ISRCTN17447733 first registration 13/02/2018.

Women's experiences of a pregnancy whilst attending a specialist antenatal service for pregnancies after stillbirth or neonatal death: a qualitative interview study.

Aim: Pregnancy after the death of a baby is associated with numerous, varied psychological challenges for pregnant women. This study aimed to explore women's experiences of pregnancy whilst attending a specialist antenatal service for pregnancies after a perinatal death.Methods: Semi-structured interviews with twenty women in a subsequent pregnancy after a perinatal death were conducted and analyzed taking an inductive thematic analysis approach.Results: All women expressed a heightened "awareness of risk". Two subthemes demonstrated how increased awareness of risk affected their experience and their desire regarding antenatal and postnatal support. Women talked about stillbirth being a "quiet, unspoken subject" causing them internal conflict as they had an awareness of pregnancy complications that other people did not. Navigating subsequent pregnancies relied on them "expecting the worst and hoping for the best" in terms of pregnancy outcomes. Women viewed specialist antenatal care in pregnancy after perinatal loss favorably, as it enabled them to receive tailored care that met their needs stemming from their increased awareness of and personal expectations of risk.Conclusion: Women's experiences can be used to develop models of care but further studies are required to determine to identify which components are most valued.

Going viral - capacity strengthening in the context of pandemic(s).

Strengthening the capacity of midwives and nurses in low- and middle-income countries to lead research is an urgent priority in embedding and sustaining evidence-based practice and better outcomes for women and newborns during childbearing. International and local travel restrictions, and physical distancing resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic have compromised the delivery of many existing programmes and challenged international partnerships working in maternal and newborn health to adapt rapidly. In this paper, we share the experiences of a midwife-led research partnership between Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, the UK, Zambia and Zimbabwe in sustaining and enhancing capacity strengthening activities remotely in this period. Whilst considerable challenges arose, and not all were overcome, collectively, we gained new insights and important learning which have shifted perspectives and will impact future design and delivery of learning programmes.

Experiences and outcomes on the use of telemetry to monitor the fetal heart during labour: findings from a mixed methods study.

BACKGROUND: Wireless continuous electronic fetal monitoring (CEFM) using telemetry offers potential for increased mobility during labour. United Kingdom national recommendations are that telemetry should be offered to all women having CEFM during labour. There is limited contemporary evidence on experiences of telemetry use or impacts it may have. AIM: To gather in-depth knowledge about the experiences of women and midwives using telemetry, and to assess any impact that its use may have on clinical outcomes, mobility in labour, control or satisfaction. METHODS: A convergent parallel mixed-methods study was employed. Grounded theory was adopted for interviews and analysis of 13 midwives, 10 women and 2 partners. Satisfaction, positions during labour and clinical outcome data was analysed from a cohort comparing telemetry (n = 64) with wired CEFM (n = 64). Qualitative and quantitative data were synthesised to give deeper understanding. FINDINGS: Women using telemetry were more mobile and adopted more upright positions during labour. The core category A Sense of Normality encompassed themes of 'Being Free, Being in Control', 'Enabling and Facilitating' and 'Maternity Unit Culture'. Greater mobility resulted in increased feelings of internal and external control and increased perceptions of autonomy, normality and dignity. There was no difference in control or satisfaction between cohort groups. CONCLUSIONS: When CEFM is used during labour, telemetry provides an opportunity to improve experience and support physiological capability. The use of telemetry during labour contributes to humanising birth for women who have CEFM and its use places them at the centre and in control of their birth experience.

Measures of anxiety, depression and stress in the antenatal and perinatal period following a stillbirth or neonatal death: a multicentre cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The grief associated with the death of a baby is enduring, however most women embark on another pregnancy, many in less than a year following their loss. Symptoms of anxiety and depression are reported to be increased in pregnancies after perinatal death, although effect on maternal stress is less clear. Variation between individual studies may result from differences in gestation at sampling, the questionnaire used and the type of antecedent perinatal death. We aimed to describe quantitative measures of anxiety, depression, stress and quality of life at different timepoints in pregnancies after perinatal death and in the early postnatal period. METHODS: Women recruited from three sites in the North-West of England. Women were asked to participate if a previous pregnancy had ended in a perinatal death. Participants completed validated measures of psychological state (Cambridge Worry Score, Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Score (EPDS), Generalized Anxiety Disorder 7-item score) and health status (EQ-5D-5L™ and EQ5D-Visual Analogue Scale) at three time points, approximately 15 weeks' and 32 weeks' gestation and 6 weeks postnatally. A sample of hair was taken at approximately 36 weeks' gestation for measurement of hair cortisol in a subgroup of women. The hair sample was divided into samples from each trimester and cortisol measured by ELISA. RESULTS: In total 112 women participated in the study. Measures of anxiety and depressive symptoms decreased from the highest levels at 15 weeks' gestation to 6-weeks postnatal (for example mean GAD-7: 15 weeks 8.2 ± 5.5, 6 weeks postnatal 4.4 ± 5.0, p<0.001). Hair cortisol levels fell in a similar profile to anxiety and depression symptoms (p<0.05). In contrast, the median EQ-5D index, measuring health status was 0.768 at 15 weeks' gestation (Interquartile range (IQR) 0.684-0.879), 0.696 at 32 weeks' (IQR 0.637-0.768) and 0.89 (0.760-1.00) at 6 weeks postnatal. There was a negative relationship between EPDS and perceived health status. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated heightened anxiety and depressive symptoms and elevated cortisol levels in women in pregnancies after a stillbirth or neonatal death which decrease as pregnancy progresses. Further studies are needed to determine optimal care for women to address these negative psychological consequences.

Lay and healthcare providers' experiences to inform future of respectful maternal and newborn care in Tanzania and Malawi: an Appreciative Inquiry.

OBJECTIVES: Disrespectful care, which remains prevalent in low and middle-income countries (LMICs), acts as a barrier to women accessing skilled birth attendance, compromising care when services are available. Building on what was positive in facilities, we aimed to explore lay and healthcare providers' experience of respectful care to inform future interventions. SETTING: Five maternity facilities in Mwanza Tanzania and Lilongwe Malawi. PARTICIPANTS: 94 participants in Malawi (N=46) and Tanzania (N=48) including 24 women birthing live baby within the previous 12 months; 22 family members and 48 healthcare providers who regularly provided maternity care in the included facilities DESIGN: The study was guided by Appreciative Inquiry (AI). Semistructured, one-to-one interviews were conducted between January and December 2019. Interviews were audio-recorded, translated where necessary, transcribed verbatim, and analysed using the framework approach. RESULTS: Four main themes describing participants positive experience and their vision of respectful care were identified: (1) empathic healthcare provider-woman interactions including friendly welcome and courteous language, well-timed appropriate care and information sharing, (2) an enabling environment, characterised by improvement of physical environment, the use of screens, curtains and wall partitions for privacy, availability of equipment and provision of incentives to staff, (3) supportive leadership demonstrated by the commitment of the government and facility leaders to provision of respectful care, ensuring availability of guidelines and policies, supportive supervision, reflective discussion and paying staff salaries timely, (4) providers' attitudes and behaviours characterised by professional values through readiness, compassionate communication and commitment. CONCLUSION: The positive experiences of service users, families and healthcare providers provided insight into key drivers of respectful care in facilities in Tanzania and Malawi. Interventions targeting improved environment and privacy, healthcare provider communication and developing positive leadership structures in facilities could provide the basis for sustained improvement in respectful and dignified maternal and newborn care in LMICs.

The impact of cultural beliefs and practices on parents' experiences of bereavement following stillbirth: a qualitative study in Uganda and Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Stillbirth is an extremely traumatic and distressing experience for parents, with profound and long-lasting negative impacts. Cultural beliefs and practices surrounding death vary considerably across different contexts and groups, and are a key influence on individual experiences, impacting grief, adjustment, and support needs. Few studies have explored cultural influences surrounding stillbirth in an African context. This study explored the influence of cultural beliefs and practices on the experiences of bereaved parents and health workers after stillbirth in urban and rural settings in Kenya and Uganda. METHODS: A qualitative descriptive study design was employed. Face to face interviews were conducted with parents (N = 134) who experienced a stillbirth (≤ 1 year) and health workers (N = 61) at five facilities in Uganda and Kenya. Interviews were conducted in English or the participants' local language, audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Analysis was conducted using descriptive thematic analysis. RESULTS: Commonalities in cultural beliefs and practices existed across the two countries. Three main themes were identified: 1) Gathering round, describes the collective support parents received from family and friends after stillbirth. 2)'It is against our custom' addresses cultural constraints and prohibitions impacting parents' behaviour and coping in the immediate aftermath of the baby's death. 3) 'Maybe it's God's plan or witchcraft' summarises spiritual, supernatural, and social beliefs surrounding the causes of stillbirth. CONCLUSIONS: Kinship and social support helped parents to cope with the loss and grief. However, other practices and beliefs surrounding stillbirth were sometimes a source of stress, fear, stigma and anxiety especially to the women. Conforming to cultural practices meant that parents were prevented from: holding and seeing their baby, openly discussing the death, memory-making and attending the burial. The conflict between addressing their own needs and complying with community norms hindered parents' grief and adjustment. There is an urgent need to develop culturally sensitive community programmes geared towards demystifying stillbirths and providing an avenue for parents to grieve in their own way.

Respectful care an added extra: a grounded theory study exploring intrapartum experiences in Zambia and Tanzania.

BACKGROUND: Quality of maternal and newborn care is integral to positive clinical, social and psychological outcomes. Respectful care is an important component of this but is suboptimum in many low-income settings. A renewed energy among health professionals and academics is driving an international agenda to eradicate disrespectful health facility care around the globe. However, few studies have explored respectful care from different vantage points. METHODS: We used Strauss and Corbin's grounded theory methodology to explore intrapartum experiences in Tanzania and Zambia. In-depth interviews were conducted with 98 participants (48 women, 18 partners, 21 health-providers and 11 key stakeholders), resulting in data saturation. Analysis involved constant comparison, comprising three stages of coding: open, axial and selective. The process involved application of memos, reflexivity and positionality. RESULTS: Findings demonstrated that direct and indirect social discrimination led to inequity of care. Health-providers were believed to display manipulative behaviours to orchestrate situations for their own or the woman's benefit, and were often caring against the odds, in challenging environments. Emergent categories were related to the core category: respectful care, an added extra, which reflects the notion that women did not always expect or receive respectful care, and tolerated poor experiences to obtain services believed to benefit them or their babies. Respectful care was not seen as a component of good quality care, but a luxury that only some receive. CONCLUSION: Both quality of care and respectful care were valued but were not viewed as mutually inclusive. Good quality treatment (transactional care) was often juxtaposed with disrespectful care; with relational care having a lower status among women and healthcare providers. To readdress the balance, respectful care should be a predominant theme in training programmes, policies and audits. Women's and health-provider voices are pivotal to the development of such interventions.

The RESPECT Study for consensus on global bereavement care after stillbirth.

OBJECTIVE: To develop global consensus on a set of evidence-based core principles for bereavement care after stillbirth. METHODS: A modified policy-Delphi methodology was used to consult international stakeholders and healthcare workers with experience in stillbirth between September 2017 and October 2018. Five sequential rounds involved two expert stakeholder meetings and three internet-based surveys, including a global internet-based survey targeted at healthcare workers in a wide range of settings. RESULTS: Initially, 23 expert stakeholders considered 43 evidence-based themes derived from systematic reviews, identifying 10 core principles. The global survey received 236 responses from participants in 26 countries, after which nine principles met a priori criteria for inclusion. The final stakeholder meeting and internet-based survey of all participants confirmed consensus on eight core principles. Highest quality bereavement care should be enabled through training of healthcare staff to reduce stigma and establish respectful care, including acknowledgement and support for grief responses, and provision for physical and psychologic needs. Women and families should be supported to make informed choices, including those concerning their future reproductive health. CONCLUSION: Consensus was established for eight principles for stillbirth bereavement care. Further work should explore implementation and involve the voices of women and families globally.

Placental Dysfunction Underlies Increased Risk of Fetal Growth Restriction and Stillbirth in Advanced Maternal Age Women.

Pregnancies in women of advanced maternal age (AMA) are susceptible to fetal growth restriction (FGR) and stillbirth. We hypothesised that maternal ageing is associated with utero-placental dysfunction, predisposing to adverse fetal outcomes. Women of AMA (≥35 years) and young controls (20-30 years) with uncomplicated pregnancies were studied. Placentas from AMA women exhibited increased syncytial nuclear aggregates and decreased proliferation, and had increased amino acid transporter activity. Chorionic plate and myometrial artery relaxation was increased compared to controls. AMA was associated with lower maternal serum PAPP-A and sFlt and a higher PlGF:sFlt ratio. AMA mice (38-41 weeks) at E17.5 had fewer pups, more late fetal deaths, reduced fetal weight, increased placental weight and reduced fetal:placental weight ratio compared to 8-12 week controls. Maternofetal clearance of 14C-MeAIB and 3H-taurine was reduced and uterine arteries showed increased relaxation. These studies identify reduced placental efficiency and altered placental function with AMA in women, with evidence of placental adaptations in normal pregnancies. The AMA mouse model complements the human studies, demonstrating high rates of adverse fetal outcomes and commonalities in placental phenotype. These findings highlight placental dysfunction as a potential mechanism for susceptibility to FGR and stillbirth with AMA.

"Forty is the new twenty": An analysis of British media portrayals of older mothers.

OBJECTIVES: Despite increased risks of infertility and poor outcomes, women in high-income countries are increasingly deferring pregnancy beyond age 35.The underlying causes are incompletely understood. The mass media is recognised as a powerful influence on health-related behaviour; therefore media representations warrant critical examination. STUDY DESIGN: Qualitative thematic analysis of portrayals of pregnancy and birth in women over 35 in UK national newspapers, popular magazines and television programmes RESULTS: Extensive media interest in childbearing and a preponderance of coverage related to celebrities was confirmed. Three main themes were identified; delayed childbearing was portrayed positively, as part of a life plan allowing women have the "best of both worlds". The media did not acknowledge age per sé as an obstacle to pregnancy and endorsed reproductive technologies suggesting 'it's never too late'. Images and descriptions of ideal post-pregnancy bodies in women over 35 reinforced the message that "you can regain your beautiful body". CONCLUSION: Delayed childbearing was represented positively, as it facilitated conformity with dominant ideologies surrounding motherhood. Within these boundaries, the effects of age were disregarded. This study provides evidence of restrictive framing of the issues surrounding delayed childbearing in the UK media which militate against communication of important public health messages.

"Nature makes you blind to the risks": An exploration of womens' views surrounding decisions on the timing of childbearing in contemporary society.

OBJECTIVE: To gain an understanding of womens' views surrounding decisions on the timing of childbearing. STUDY DESIGN: This study was based on interviews with 18 childless women, from North-West England, in three age groups: Six women aged between 18 and 24; Six women aged between 25 and 34; and six women aged 35 or more. Data were analysed using a hermeneutic phenomenological approach with thematic analysis. RESULTS: Three main themes were identified. Women perceived themselves as living within boundaries, defined internally and externally; they aspired to being a great mother or no mother; and had a desire to contribute to family and society, at multiple levels. Risks associated with delaying childbearing had little or no influence on decision-making. The overarching phenomenon was social comparability; decisions were made in the context of women's knowledge and perceptions of others and a high degree of critical self-evaluation. CONCLUSION: We conclude that social reality dominates womens' reproductive decisions. Whilst the biological reality is that fertility reduces and medical complications increase with maternal age, social discourses deter women from acknowledging this. Medical risks associated with advanced maternal age are undermined by the notion that women can choose when to start a family.

Maternal obesity impairs specific regulatory pathways in human myometrial arteries.

Obese women (body mass index ≥30 kg/m(2)) are at greater risk than normal weight women of pregnancy complications associated with maternal and infant morbidity, particularly the development of cardiovascular disease and metabolic disorders in later life; why this occurs is unknown. Nonpregnant, obese individuals exhibit systemic vascular endothelial dysfunction. We tested the hypothesis that obese pregnant women have altered myometrial arterial function compared to pregnant women of normal (18-24 kg/m(2)) and overweight (25-29 kg/m(2)) body mass index. Responses to vasoconstrictors, U46619 (thromboxane mimetic) and arginine vasopressin, and vasodilators, bradykinin and the nitric oxide donor sodium nitroprusside, were assessed by wire myography in myometrial arteries from normal weight (n = 18), overweight (n = 18), and obese (n = 20) women with uncomplicated pregnancies. Thromboxane-prostanoid receptor expression was assessed using immunostaining in myometrial arteries of normal weight and obese women. Vasoconstriction and vasodilatation were impaired in myometrial arteries from obese women with otherwise uncomplicated pregnancies. Disparate agonist responses suggest that vascular function in obese women is not globally dysregulated but may be specific to thromboxane and nitric oxide pathways. Because obesity rates are escalating, it is important to identify the mechanisms underlying impaired vascular function and establish why some obese women compensate for vascular dysfunction and some do not. Future studies are needed to determine whether central adiposity results in an altered endocrine milieu that may promote vascular dysfunction by altering the function of perivascular adipose tissue.

Maternal obesity and its effect on placental cell turnover.

BACKGROUND: Maternal obesity is a frequent obstetric risk factor, linked with short- and long-term consequences for mother and child, including foetal overgrowth, growth restriction and stillbirth. The mechanisms underlying these pathologies remain unknown but likely involve the placenta. AIMS: To study placental cell turnover in relation to maternal body mass index (BMI). METHODS: Term placental villous tissue was randomly sampled from 24 pregnancies, with a range of maternal BMI of 19.5-49.6. Immunohistochemistry was performed for human chorionic gonadotropin, Ki67 and M30 and image analysis used to calculate syncytiotrophoblast area and proliferative and apoptotic indices. Results were compared categorically between women of BMI 18.5-24.9 (normal), BMI 30.0-39.9 (obese classes 1 and 2) and BMI 40+ (obese class 3) and continuously against BMI; p < 0.05 by the Kruskal-Wallis test or linear regression was considered statistically significant. RESULTS: Increased maternal BMI was associated with categorical (normal versus obese class 3 and obese classes 1 and 2 versus obese class 3, both p < 0.05) and continuous (r(2) = 0.24, p = 0.016) reductions in the proliferative index and a continuous reduction (r(2) = 0.17, p = 0.047) in the apoptotic index. DISCUSSION: Maternal obesity is associated with a dose-dependent reduction in placental villous proliferation and apoptosis which may increase susceptibility to adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Advanced maternal age: delayed childbearing is rarely a conscious choice a qualitative study of women's views and experiences.

BACKGROUND: There is a global trend, in high resource countries, for delayed childbearing beyond the age of 35. Women of advanced maternal age are considered to be at higher risk of poor maternal and neonatal outcomes. Women's views and experiences of delayed childbearing are relatively unexplored. OBJECTIVES: To gain an understanding of factors influencing women's decisions to delay childbearing and explore their experiences and perceptions of associated risks. DESIGN: A qualitative phenomenological study. SETTING: Greater Manchester, United Kingdom. PARTICIPANTS: Purposive sample of 18 women aged 35 and over in three groups; six women with no children who were not pregnant, six women pregnant with their first child and six women with no children attending a fertility clinic. METHODS: Data were collected by in depth semi-structured interviews, managed manually and subjected to thematic analysis. RESULTS: Three main themes were identified; the chapters of life, the need to know, and childbearing being within or beyond women's control. Women focussed on the need for a stable relationship, being "ready" to have a baby, and acquisition of life experience. Their experiences reflected a lack of awareness of many of the risks associated with pregnancy over age 35 and disbelief that age alone necessarily increased the likelihood of poor outcomes. Women perceived a lack of choice in the timing of when to start a family. Women suggested that although they may have reached a juncture in their lives, at which they felt ready to have a baby, the circumstances in which they found themselves may not support this; factors such as relationship, financial stability, health and fertility, were often outside of their control. CONCLUSIONS: Women do not perceive that they have ultimate control when it comes to the timing of childbearing. Health professionals and the media should be aware of the complex interplay of factors surrounding women's reasons for delaying childbearing. Sensitive information and support should be provided allowing for varying perceptions of risk status. Women may benefit from pre-conception education.

'Informed and uninformed decision making'--women's reasoning, experiences and perceptions with regard to advanced maternal age and delayed childbearing: a meta-synthesis.

OBJECTIVES: To identify what factors affect women's decisions to delay childbearing, and to explore women's experiences and their perceptions of associated risks. DESIGN: Systematic procedures were used for search strategy, study selection, data extraction and analysis. Findings were synthesised using an approach developed from meta-ethnography. DATA SOURCES: We included qualitative papers, not confined to geographical area (1980-2009). Databases included CINAHL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycInfo, ASSIA, MIDIRS, British Nursing Index and the National Research Register. We selected qualitative empirical studies exploring the views and experiences of women of advanced maternal age who were childless or primigravidae with a singleton pregnancy or primiparous. REVIEW METHODS: Twelve papers fulfilled the selection criteria and were included for synthesis. RESULTS: Women appear to face an issue of 'informed and uninformed decision making'; those who believe they are informed but may not be, those who are not informed and find out they are at risk once pregnant, and those who are well informed but choose to delay pregnancy anyway. Maternity services could provide information to enable informed choice regarding timing of childbearing. CONCLUSIONS: Health professionals need to be mindful of the fact that women delay childbearing for various reasons. A strategy of pre-conception education may be beneficial in informing childbearing decisions. Obstetricians and midwives should be sensitive to the fact that women may not be aware of all the risks associated with delayed childbearing.