IL-10 induces activated phenotypes of monocytes observed in virally-suppressed HIV-1-infected individuals.

Despite viral suppression by effective combined antiretroviral therapy, HIV-1-infected individuals have an increased risk of non-AIDS-related overall morbidity, which is due to the persistent chronic inflammation exemplified by the activation of monocytes, such as increased CD16high subset, and elevated plasma level of soluble CD163 (sCD163) and soluble CD14 (sCD14). Here, we show that IL-10, which has been recognized as anti-inflammatory, induces these activated phenotypes of monocytes in vitro. IL-10 increased CD16high monocytes, which was due to the upregulation of CD16 mRNA expression and completely canceled by an inhibitor of Stat3. Moreover, IL-10 increased the production of sCD163 and sCD14 by monocytes, which was consistent with the upregulation of cell surface expression of CD163 and CD14, and mRNA expression of CD163. However, unlike the IL-10-indeuced upregulation of CD16, that of CD14 was minimally affected by the Stat3 inhibitor. Furthermore, the IL-10-induced upregulation of CD163 protein and mRNA was partially inhibited by the Stat3 inhibitor, but completely canceled by an inhibitor of AMPK, an upstream kinase of Stat3 and PI3K/Akt/mTORC1 pathways. In this study, we also found that HIV-1 pathogenic protein Nef, which is known to persist in plasma of virally-suppressed individuals, induced IL-10 production in monocyte-derived macrophages. Our results may suggest that IL-10, which is inducible by Nef-activated macrophages, is one of drivers for activated phenotypes of monocytes in virally-suppressed individuals, and that IL-10 induces the increased CD16high monocytes and elevated level of sCD163 and sCD14 through the activation of different signaling pathways.

Species-Specific Transcription Factors Associated with Long Terminal Repeat Promoters of Endogenous Retroviruses: A Comprehensive Review.

Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) became a part of the eukaryotic genome through endogenization millions of years ago. Moreover, they have lost their innate capability of virulence or replication. Nevertheless, in eukaryotic cells, they actively engage in various activities that may be advantageous or disadvantageous to the cells. The mechanisms by which transcription is triggered and implicated in cellular processes are complex. Owing to the diversity in the expression of transcription factors (TFs) in cells and the TF-binding motifs of viruses, the comprehensibility of ERV initiation and its impact on cellular functions are unclear. Currently, several factors are known to be related to their initiation. TFs that bind to the viral long-terminal repeat (LTR) are critical initiators. This review discusses the TFs shown to actively associate with ERV stimulation across species such as humans, mice, pigs, monkeys, zebrafish, Drosophila, and yeast. A comprehensive summary of the expression of previously reported TFs may aid in identifying similarities between animal species and endogenous viruses. Moreover, an in-depth understanding of ERV expression will assist in elucidating their physiological roles in eukaryotic cell development and in clarifying their relationship with endogenous retrovirus-associated diseases.

HIV-Tocky system to visualize proviral expression dynamics.

Determinants of HIV-1 latency establishment are yet to be elucidated. HIV reservoir comprises a rare fraction of infected cells that can survive host and virus-mediated killing. In vitro reporter models so far offered a feasible means to inspect this population, but with limited capabilities to dissect provirus silencing dynamics. Here, we describe a new HIV reporter model, HIV-Timer of cell kinetics and activity (HIV-Tocky) with dual fluorescence spontaneous shifting to reveal provirus silencing and reactivation dynamics. This unique feature allows, for the first time, identifying two latent populations: a directly latent, and a recently silenced subset, with the latter having integration features suggestive of stable latency. Our proposed model can help address the heterogeneous nature of HIV reservoirs and offers new possibilities for evaluating eradication strategies.

Differential Ability of Spike Protein of SARS-CoV-2 Variants to Downregulate ACE2.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the causative agent of coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) and employs angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as the receptor. Although the expression of ACE2 is crucial for cellular entry, we found that the interaction between ACE2 and the Spike (S) protein in the same cells led to its downregulation through degradation in the lysosomal compartment via the endocytic pathway. Interestingly, the ability of the S protein from previous variants of concern (VOCs) to downregulate ACE2 was variant-dependent and correlated with disease severity. The S protein from the Omicron variant, associated with milder disease, exhibited a lower capacity to downregulate ACE2 than that of the Delta variant, which is linked to a higher risk of hospitalization. Chimeric studies between the S proteins from the Delta and Omicron variants revealed that both the receptor-binding domain (RBD) and the S2 subunit played crucial roles in the reduced ACE2 downregulation activity observed in the Omicron variant. In contrast, three mutations (L452R/P681R/D950N) located in the RBD, S1/S2 cleavage site, and HR1 domain were identified as essential for the higher ACE2 downregulation activity observed in the Delta variant compared to that in the other VOCs. Our results suggested that dysregulation of the renin-angiotensin system due to the ACE2 downregulation activity of the S protein of SARS-CoV-2 may play a key role in the pathogenesis of COVID-19.

Turkish Plants, Including Quercetin and Oenothein B, Inhibit the HIV-1 Release and Accelerate Cell Apoptosis.

The introduction of combined anti-retroviral therapy (cART) in 1996, along with a continual breakthrough in anti-human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) drugs, has improved the life expectancies of HIV-1-infected individuals. However, the incidence of drug-resistant viruses between individuals undergoing cART and treatment-naïve individuals is a common challenge. Therefore, there is a requirement to explore potential drug targets by considering various stages of the viral life cycle. For instance, the late stage, or viral release stage, remains uninvestigated extensively in antiviral drug discovery. In this study, we prepared a natural plant library and selected candidate plant extracts that inhibited HIV-1 release based on our laboratory-established screening system. The plant extracts from Epilobium hirsutum L. and Chamerion angustifolium (L.) Holub, belonging to the family Onagraceae, decreased HIV-1 release and accelerated the apoptosis in HIV-1-infected T cells but not uninfected T cells. A flavonol glycoside quercetin with oenothein B in Onagraceae reduced HIV-1 release in HIV-1-infected T cells. Moreover, extracts from Chamerion angustifolium (L.) Holub and Senna alexandrina Mill. inhibited the infectivity of progeny viruses. Together, these results suggest that C. angustifolium (L.) Holub contains quercetin with oenothein B that synergistically blocks viral replication and kills infected cells via an apoptotic pathway. Consequently, the plant extracts from the plant library of Turkey might be suitable candidates for developing novel anti-retroviral drugs that target the late phase of the HIV-1 life cycle.

Interaction of TSG101 with the PTAP Motif in Distinct Locations of Gag Determines the Incorporation of HTLV-1 Env into the Retroviral Virion.

Human T-cell tropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is known to be mainly transmitted by cell-to-cell contact due to the lower infectivity of the cell-free virion. However, the reasons why cell-free HTLV-1 infection is poor remain unknown. In this study, we found that the retrovirus pseudotyped with HTLV-1 viral envelope glycoprotein (Env) was infectious when human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) was used to produce the virus. We found that the incorporation of HTLV-1 Env into virus-like particles (VLPs) was low when HTLV-1 Gag was used to produce VLPs, whereas VLPs produced using HIV-1 Gag efficiently incorporated HTLV-1 Env. The production of VLPs using Gag chimeras between HTLV-1 and HIV-1 Gag and deletion mutants of HIV-1 Gag showed that the p6 domain of HIV-1 Gag was responsible for the efficient incorporation of HTLV-1 Env into the VLPs. Further mutagenic analyses of the p6 domain of HIV-1 Gag revealed that the PTAP motif in the p6 domain of HIV-1 Gag facilitates the incorporation of HTLV-1 Env into VLPs. Since the PTAP motif is known to interact with tumor susceptibility gene 101 (TSG101) during the budding process, we evaluated the effect of TSG101 knockdown on the incorporation of HTLV-1 Env into VLPs. We found that TSG101 knockdown suppressed the incorporation of HTLV-1 Env into VLPs and decreased the infectivity of cell-free HIV-1 pseudotyped with HTLV-1 Env. Our results suggest that the interaction of TSG101 with the PTAP motif of the retroviral L domain is involved not only in the budding process but also in the efficient incorporation of HTLV-1 Env into the cell-free virus.

The unique activity of saponin: Induction of cytotoxicity in HTLV-1 infected cells.

Infection with the retrovirus human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) sometimes causes diseases that are difficult to cure. To find anti-HTLV-1 natural compounds, we opted to screen using the HTLV-1-infected T-cell line, MT-2. Based on our results, an extract of the pulp/seeds of Akebia quinata Decaisne fruit killed MT-2 cells but did not affect the Jurkat cell line that was not infected with virus. To determine the active ingredients, seven saponins with one-six sugar moieties were isolated from A. quinata seeds, and their activities against the two cell lines were examined. Both cell lines were killed in a similar manner by Akebia saponins A and B. Further, Akebia saponins D, E, PK and G did not exhibit cytotoxicity. Akebia saponin C had a similar activity to the extract found in the screening. This compound was found to enhance Gag aggregation, induce the abnormal cleavage of Gag, suppress virion release, and preferentially kill HTLV-1 infected cells; however, their relationship remains elusive. Our findings may lead to the development of new therapies for infectious diseases based on the removal of whole-virus-infected cells.

Novel Inhibitor for Downstream Targeting of Transforming Growth Factor-ß Signaling to Suppress Epithelial to Mesenchymal Transition and Cell Migration.

Cancer metastasis accounts for most of the mortality associated with solid tumors. However, antimetastatic drugs are not available on the market. One of the important biological events leading to metastasis is the epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) induced by cytokines, namely transforming growth-factor-ß (TGF-ß). Although several classes of inhibitors targeting TGF-ß and its receptor have been developed, they have shown profound clinical side effects. We focused on our synthetic compound, HPH-15, which has shown anti-fibrotic activity via the blockade of the TGF-ß Smad-dependent signaling. In this study, 10 µM of HPH-15 was found to exhibit anti-cell migration and anti-EMT activities in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells. Although higher concentrations are required, the anti-EMT activity of HPH-15 has also been observed in 3D-cultured NSCLC cells. A mechanistic study showed that HPH-15 inhibits downstream TGF-ß signaling. This downstream inhibition blocks the expression of cytokines such as TGF-ß, leading to the next cycle of Smad-dependent and -independent signaling. HPH-15 has AMPK-activation activity, but a relationship between AMPK activation and anti-EMT/cell migration was not observed. Taken together, HPH-15 may lead to the development of antimetastatic drugs with a new mechanism of action.

Identification and characterization of a novel enhancer in the HTLV-1 proviral genome.

Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is a retrovirus that causes adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL), a cancer of infected CD4+ T-cells. There is both sense and antisense transcription from the integrated provirus. Sense transcription tends to be suppressed, but antisense transcription is constitutively active. Various efforts have been made to elucidate the regulatory mechanism of HTLV-1 provirus for several decades; however, it remains unknown how HTLV-1 antisense transcription is maintained. Here, using proviral DNA-capture sequencing, we found a previously unidentified viral enhancer in the middle of the HTLV-1 provirus. The transcription factors, SRF and ELK-1, play a pivotal role in the activity of this enhancer. Aberrant transcription of genes in the proximity of integration sites was observed in freshly isolated ATL cells. This finding resolves certain long-standing questions concerning HTLV-1 persistence and pathogenesis. We anticipate that the DNA-capture-seq approach can be applied to analyze the regulatory mechanisms of other oncogenic viruses integrated into the host cellular genome.

Movements of Ancient Human Endogenous Retroviruses Detected in SOX2-Expressing Cells.

Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) occupy approximately 8% of the human genome. HERVs, transcribed in early embryos, are epigenetically silenced in somatic cells, except under pathological conditions. HERV-K is thought to protect embryos from exogenous viral infection. However, uncontrolled HERV-K expression in somatic cells has been implicated in several diseases. Here, we show that SOX2, which plays a key role in maintaining the pluripotency of stem cells, is critical for HERV-K LTR5Hs. HERV-K undergoes retrotransposition within producer cells in the absence of Env expression. Furthermore, we identified new HERV-K integration sites in long-term culture of induced pluripotent stem cells that express SOX2. These results suggest that the strict dependence of HERV-K on SOX2 has allowed HERV-K to protect early embryos during evolution while limiting the potentially harmful effects of HERV-K retrotransposition on host genome integrity in these early embryos. IMPORTANCE Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs) account for approximately 8% of the human genome; however, the physiological role of HERV-K remains unknown. This study found that HERV-K LTR5Hs and LTR5B were transactivated by SOX2, which is essential for maintaining and reestablishing pluripotency. HERV-K can undergo retrotransposition within producer cells without env expression, and new integration sites may affect cell proliferation. In induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), genomic impairment due to HERV-K retrotransposition has been identified, but it is a rare event. Considering the retention of SOX2-responsive elements in the HERV-K long terminal repeat (LTR) for over 20 million years, we conclude that HERV-K may play important physiological roles in SOX2-expressing cells.

Subtilase cytotoxin from Shiga-toxigenic Escherichia coli impairs the inflammasome and exacerbates enteropathogenic bacterial infection.

Subtilase cytotoxin (SubAB) is an AB5 toxin mainly produced by the locus of enterocyte effacement-negative Shiga-toxigenic Escherichia coli (STEC) strain such as O113:H21, yet the contribution of SubAB to STEC infectious disease is unclear. We found that SubAB reduced activation of the STEC O113:H21 infection-induced non-canonical NLRP3 inflammasome and interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-18 production in murine macrophages. Downstream of lipopolysaccharide signaling, SubAB suppressed caspase-11 expression by inhibiting interferon-ß/STAT1 signaling, followed by disrupting formation of the NLRP3/caspase-1 assembly. These inhibitions were regulated by PERK/IRE1α-dependent endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress signaling initiated by cleavage of the host ER chaperone BiP by SubAB. Our murine model of SubAB-producing Citrobacter rodentium demonstrated that SubAB promoted C. rodentium proliferation and worsened symptoms such as intestinal hyperplasia and diarrhea. These findings highlight the inhibitory effect of SubAB on the NLRP3 inflammasome via ER stress, which may be associated with STEC survival and infectious disease pathogenicity in hosts.

Structural insight into host plasma membrane association and assembly of HIV-1 matrix protein.

Oligomerization of Pr55Gag is a critical step of the late stage of the HIV life cycle. It has been known that the binding of IP6, an abundant endogenous cyclitol molecule at the MA domain, has been linked to the oligomerization of Pr55Gag. However, the exact binding site of IP6 on MA remains unknown and the structural details of this interaction are missing. Here, we present three high-resolution crystal structures of the MA domain in complex with IP6 molecules to reveal its binding mode. Additionally, extensive Differential Scanning Fluorimetry analysis combined with cryo- and ambient-temperature X-ray crystallography and GNM-based transfer entropy calculations identify the key residues that participate in IP6 binding. Our data provide novel insights about the multilayered HIV-1 virion assembly process that involves the interplay of IP6 with PIP2, a phosphoinositide essential for the binding of Pr55Gag to membrane. IP6 and PIP2 have neighboring alternate binding sites within the same highly basic region (residues 18-33). This indicates that IP6 and PIP2 bindings are not mutually exclusive and may play a key role in coordinating virion particles' membrane localization. Based on our three different IP6-MA complex crystal structures, we propose a new model that involves IP6 coordination of the oligomerization of outer MA and inner CA domain's 2D layers during assembly and budding.

Discovery of anti-cell migration activity of an anti-HIV heterocyclic compound by identification of its binding protein hnRNP M.

One compound sometimes shows two biological functions, becoming important aspect of recent drug discovery. This study began with an attempt to confirm the previously reported molecular mechanism of the anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) heterocyclic compound BMMP [2-(benzothiazol-2-ylmethylthio)-4-methylpyrimidine], i.e., induction of abnormal uncoating of the viral core at the post-entry step. Our mechanistic study gave results consistent with this mechanism. We further attempted to find out the molecular target of BMMP by a pulldown approach using previously synthesized biotinylated BMMP (Biotin-BMMP) and successfully identified heterogenous nuclear ribonucleoprotein M (hnRNP M) as a BMMP-binding protein. This protein was found not to be accountable for the anti-HIV activity of BMMP. As hnRNP M has been reported to promote cancer metastasis, we tested this mechanism and found that BMMP suppressed migration of the human lung carcinoma cell line A549 stimulated with transforming growth factor-ß (TGF-ß). Mechanistic study showed that BMMP suppressed the expression of CD44 mRNA via the regulation of hnRNP M. Furthermore, six new derivatives of BMMP were synthesized, and the patterns of their activities against HIV-1 and cell migration were not uniform, suggesting that the anti-HIV mechanism and the anti-cell migration mechanism of BMMP are independent. Taken together, the anti-cell migration activity of the anti-HIV heterocyclic compound BMMP was newly discovered by identification of its binding protein hnRNP M using a chemical biology approach.

Existence of Replication-Competent Minor Variants with Different Coreceptor Usage in Plasma from HIV-1-Infected Individuals.

Cell entry by HIV-1 is mediated by its principal receptor, CD4, and a coreceptor, either CCR5 or CXCR4, with viral envelope glycoprotein gp120. Generally, CCR5-using HIV-1 variants, called R5, predominate over most of the course of infection, while CXCR4-using HIV-1 variants (variants that utilize both CCR5 and CXCR4 [R5X4, or dual] or CXCR4 alone [X4]) emerge at late-stage infection in half of HIV-1-infected individuals and are associated with disease progression. Although X4 variants also appear during acute-phase infection in some cases, these variants apparently fall to undetectable levels thereafter. In this study, replication-competent X4 variants were isolated from plasma of drug treatment-naive individuals infected with HIV-1 strain CRF01_AE, which dominantly carries viral RNA (vRNA) of R5 variants. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) confirmed that sequences of X4 variants were indeed present in plasma vRNA from these individuals as a minor population. On the other hand, in one individual with a mixed infection in which X4 variants were dominant, only R5 replication-competent variants were isolated from plasma. These results indicate the existence of replication-competent variants with different coreceptor usage as minor populations.IMPORTANCE The coreceptor switch of HIV-1 from R5 to CXCR4-using variants (R5X4 or X4) has been observed in about half of HIV-1-infected individuals at late-stage infection with loss of CD4 cell count and disease progression. However, the mechanisms that underlie the emergence of CXCR4-using variants at this stage are unclear. In the present study, CXCR4-using X4 variants were isolated from plasma samples of HIV-1-infected individuals that dominantly carried vRNA of R5 variants. The sequences of the X4 variants were detected as a minor population using next-generation sequencing. Taken together, CXCR4-using variants at late-stage infection are likely to emerge when replication-competent CXCR4-using variants are maintained as a minor population during the course of infection. The present study may support the hypothesis that R5-to-X4 switching is mediated by the expansion of preexisting X4 variants in some cases.

A clue to unprecedented strategy to HIV eradication: "Lock-in and apoptosis".

Despite the development of antiretroviral therapy against HIV, eradication of the virus from the body, as a means to a cure, remains in progress. A "kick and kill" strategy proposes "kick" of the latent HIV to an active HIV to eventually be "killed". Latency-reverting agents that can perform the "kick" function are under development and have shown promise. Management of the infected cells not to produce virions after the "kick" step is important to this strategy. Here we show that a newly synthesized compound, L-HIPPO, captures the HIV-1 protein Pr55Gag and intercepts its function to translocate the virus from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane leading to virion budding. The infecting virus thus "locked-in" subsequently induces apoptosis of the host cells. This "lock-in and apoptosis" approach performed by our novel compound in HIV-infected cells provides a means to bridge the gap between the "kick" and "kill" steps of this eradication strategy. By building upon previous progress in latency reverting agents, our compound appears to provide a promising step toward the goal of HIV eradication from the body.

Molecular mechanisms by which HERV-K Gag interferes with HIV-1 Gag assembly and particle infectivity.

BACKGROUND: Human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs), the remnants of ancient retroviral infections, constitute approximately 8% of human genomic DNA. Since HERV-K Gag expression is induced by HIV-1 Tat in T cells, induced HERV-K proteins could affect HIV-1 replication. Indeed, previously we showed that HERV-K Gag and HIV-1 Gag coassemble and that this appears to correlate with the effect of HERV-K Gag expression on HIV-1 particle release and its infectivity. We further showed that coassembly requires both MA and NC domains, which presumably serve as scaffolding for Gag via their abilities to bind membrane and RNA, respectively. Notably, however, despite possessing these abilities, MLV Gag failed to coassemble with HIV-1 Gag and did not affect assembly and infectivity of HIV-1 particles. It is unclear how the specificity of coassembly is determined. RESULTS: Here, we showed that coexpression of HERV-K Gag with HIV-1 Gag changed size and morphology of progeny HIV-1 particles and severely diminished infectivity of such progeny viruses. We further compared HERV-K-MLV chimeric constructs to identify molecular determinants for coassembly specificity and for inhibition of HIV-1 release efficiency and infectivity. We found that the CA N-terminal domain (NTD) of HERV-K Gag is important for the reduction of the HIV-1 release efficiency, whereas both CA-NTD and major homology region of HERV-K Gag contribute to colocalization with HIV-1 Gag. Interestingly, these regions of HERV-K Gag were not required for reduction of progeny HIV-1 infectivity. CONCLUSIONS: Our results showed that HERV-K Gag CA is important for reduction of HIV-1 release and infectivity but the different regions within CA are involved in the effects on the HIV-1 release and infectivity. Altogether, these findings revealed that HERV-K Gag interferes the HIV-1 replication by two distinct molecular mechanisms.

Fibrocytes Differ from Macrophages but Can Be Infected with HIV-1.

Fibrocytes (fibroblastic leukocytes) are recently identified as unique hematopoietic cells with features of both macrophages and fibroblasts. Fibrocytes are known to contribute to the remodeling or fibrosis of various injured tissues. However, their role in viral infection is not fully understood. In this study, we show that differentiated fibrocytes are phenotypically distinguishable from macrophages but can be infected with HIV-1. Importantly, fibrocytes exhibited persistently infected cell-like phenotypes, the degree of which was more apparent than macrophages. The infected fibrocytes produced replication-competent HIV-1, but expressed HIV-1 mRNA at low levels and strongly resisted HIV-1-induced cell death, which enabled them to support an extremely long-term HIV-1 production at low but steady levels. More importantly, our results suggested that fibrocytes were susceptible to HIV-1 regardless of their differentiation state, in contrast to the fact that monocytes become susceptible to HIV-1 after the differentiation into macrophages. Our findings indicate that fibrocytes are the previously unreported HIV-1 host cells, and they suggest the importance of considering fibrocytes as one of the long-lived persistently infected cells for curing HIV-1.

Preferential recognition of monomeric CCR5 expressed in cultured cells by the HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 for the entry of R5 HIV-1.

Bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) and western blot analysis demonstrated that CCR5 exists as constitutive homo-oligomers, which was further enhanced by its antagonists such as maraviroc (MVC) and TAK-779. Staining by monoclonal antibodies recognizing different epitopes of CCR5 revealed that CCR5 oligomer was structurally different from the monomer. To determine which forms of CCR5 are well recognized by CCR5-using HIV-1 for the entry, BiFC-positive and -negative cell fractions in CD4-positive 293T cells were collected by fluorescent-activated cell sorter, and infected with luciferase-reporter HIV-1 pseudotyped with CCR5-using Envs including R5 and R5X4. R5 and dual-R5 HIV-1 substantially infected BiFC-negative fraction rather than BiFC-positive fraction, indicating the preferential recognition of monomeric CCR5 by R5 and dual-R5 Envs. Although CCR5 antagonists enhanced oligomerization of CCR5, MVC-resistant HIV-1 was found to still recognize both MVC-bound and -unbound forms of monomeric CCR5, suggesting the constrained use of monomeric CCR5 by R5 HIV-1.

V3-independent competitive resistance of a dual-X4 HIV-1 to the CXCR4 inhibitor AMD3100.

A CXCR4 inhibitor-resistant HIV-1 was isolated from a dual-X4 HIV-1 in vitro. The resistant variant displayed competitive resistance to the CXCR4 inhibitor AMD3100, indicating that the resistant variant had a higher affinity for CXCR4 than that of the wild-type HIV-1. Amino acid sequence analyses revealed that the resistant variant harbored amino acid substitutions in the V2, C2, and C4 regions, but no remarkable changes in the V3 loop. Site-directed mutagenesis confirmed that the changes in the C2 and C4 regions were principally involved in the reduced sensitivity to AMD3100. Furthermore, the change in the C4 region was associated with increased sensitivity to soluble CD4, and profoundly enhanced the entry efficiency of the virus. Therefore, it is likely that the resistant variant acquired the higher affinity for CD4/CXCR4 by the changes in non-V3 regions. Taken together, a CXCR4 inhibitor-resistant HIV-1 can evolve using a non-V3 pathway.

Bacterial curli protein promotes the conversion of PAP248-286 into the amyloid SEVI: cross-seeding of dissimilar amyloid sequences.

Fragments of prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP248-286) in human semen dramatically increase HIV infection efficiency by increasing virus adhesion to target cells. PAP248-286 only enhances HIV infection in the form of amyloid aggregates termed SEVI (Semen Enhancer of Viral Infection), however monomeric PAP248-286 aggregates very slowly in isolation. It has therefore been suggested that SEVI fiber formation in vivo may be promoted by exogenous factors. We show here that a bacterially-produced extracellular amyloid (curli or Csg) acts as a catalytic agent for SEVI formation from PAP248-286 at low concentrations in vitro, producing fibers that retain the ability to enhance HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) infection. Kinetic analysis of the cross-seeding effect shows an unusual pattern. Cross-seeding PAP248-286 with curli only moderately affects the nucleation rate while significantly enhancing the growth of fibers from existing nuclei. This pattern is in contrast to most previous observations of cross-seeding, which show cross-seeding partially bypasses the nucleation step but has little effect on fiber elongation. Seeding other amyloidogenic proteins (IAPP (islet amyloid polypeptide) and Aß1-40) with curli showed varied results. Curli cross-seeding decreased the lag-time of IAPP amyloid formation but strongly inhibited IAPP elongation. Curli cross-seeding exerted a complicated concentration dependent effect on Aß1-40 fibrillogenesis kinetics. Combined, these results suggest that the interaction of amyloidogenic proteins with preformed fibers of a different type can take a variety of forms and is not limited to epitaxial nucleation between proteins of similar sequence. The ability of curli fibers to interact with proteins of dissimilar sequences suggests cross-seeding may be a more general phenomenon than previously supposed.