Glia transmit negative valence information during aversive learning in Drosophila.

During Drosophila aversive olfactory conditioning, aversive shock information needs to be transmitted to the mushroom bodies (MBs) to associate with odor information. We report that aversive information is transmitted by ensheathing glia (EG) that surround the MBs. Shock induces vesicular exocytosis of glutamate from EG. Blocking exocytosis impairs aversive learning, whereas activation of EG can replace aversive stimuli during conditioning. Glutamate released from EG binds to N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors in the MBs, but because of Mg2+ block, Ca2+ influx occurs only when flies are simultaneously exposed to an odor. Vesicular exocytosis from EG also induces shock-associated dopamine release, which plays a role in preventing formation of inappropriate associations. These results demonstrate that vesicular glutamate released from EG transmits negative valence information required for associative learning.

Quinacrine is not a vital fluorescent probe for vesicular ATP storage.

Quinacrine, a fluorescent amphipathic amine, has been used as a vital fluorescent probe to visualize vesicular storage of ATP in the field of purinergic signaling. However, the mechanism(s) by which quinacrine represents vesicular ATP storage remains to be clarified. The present study investigated the validity of the use of quinacrine as a vial fluorescent probe for ATP-storing organelles. Vesicular nucleotide transporter (VNUT), an essential component for vesicular storage and ATP release, is present in very low density lipoprotein (VLDL)-containing secretory vesicles in hepatocytes. VNUT gene knockout (Vnut-/-) or clodronate treatment, a VNUT inhibitor, disappeared vesicular ATP release (Tatsushima et al., Biochim Biophys Acta Molecular Basis of Disease 2021, e166013). Upon incubation of mice's primary hepatocytes, quinacrine accumulates in a granular pattern into the cytoplasm, sensitive to 0.1-µM bafilomycin A1, a vacuolar ATPase (V-ATPase) inhibitor. Neither Vnut-/- nor treatment of clodronate affected quinacrine granular accumulation. In vitro, quinacrine is accumulated into liposomes upon imposing inside acidic transmembranous pH gradient (∆pH) irrespective of the presence or absence of ATP. Neither ATP binding on VNUT nor VNUT-mediated uptake of ATP was affected by quinacrine. Consistently, VNUT-mediated uptake of quinacrine was negligible or under the detection limit. From these results, it is concluded that vesicular quinacrine accumulation is not due to a consequence of its interaction with ATP but due to ∆pH-driven concentration across the membranes as an amphipathic amine. Thus, quinacrine is not a vital fluorescent probe for vesicular ATP storage.

Physiopathological roles of vesicular nucleotide transporter (VNUT), an essential component for vesicular ATP release.

Vesicular nucleotide transporter (VNUT) is the last identified member of the SLC17 organic anion transporter family, which plays a central role in vesicular storage in ATP-secreting cells. The discovery of VNUT demonstrated that, despite having been neglected for a long time, vesicular ATP release represents a major pathway for purinergic chemical transmission, which had been mainly attributed to ATP permeation channels. This article summarizes recent advances in our understanding of the mechanism of VNUT and its physiopathological roles as well as the development of inhibitors. Regulating the activity and/or the expression of VNUT represents a new and promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of multiple diseases.

Function of essential chloride and arginine residue in nucleotide binding to vesicular nucleotide transporter.

Vesicular nucleotide transporter (VNUT) plays a key role in purinergic signalling through its ability to transport nucleotides. VNUT belongs to the SLC17 family, which includes vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs) and Type I Na+/phosphate cotransporters. All of these transporters exhibit membrane potential and Cl--dependent organic anion transport activity and have essential arginine in the transmembrane region. Previously, we reported that ketoacids inhibit these transporters through modulation of Cl- activation. Although this regulation is important to control signal transmission, the mechanisms underlying Cl--dependent regulation are unclear. Here, we examined the functional roles of Cl- and essential arginine residue on ATP binding to VNUT using the fluorescent ATP analogue trinitrophenyl-ATP (TNP-ATP). The fluorescence of TNP-ATP was enhanced by VNUT, whereas no enhancement was observed by VGLUT. Concentration-dependence curves showed that TNP-ATP was a high-affinity fluorescent probe for VNUT, with a Kd of 4.8 µM. TNP-ATP binding was competitive to ATP and showed similar specificity to transport activity. Addition of Cl- and ketoacids did not affect the apparent affinity for TNP-ATP. The Arg119 to Ala mutant retained TNP-ATP binding ability with slightly reduced affinity. Overall, these results indicated that Cl- and essential arginine were not important for ATP binding.

Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine resistance transporter is a H+-coupled polyspecific nutrient and drug exporter.

Extrusion of chloroquine (CQ) from digestive vacuoles through the Plasmodium falciparum CQ resistance transporter (PfCRT) is essential to establish CQ resistance of the malaria parasite. However, the physiological relevance of PfCRT and how CQ-resistant PfCRT gains the ability to transport CQ remain unknown. We prepared proteoliposomes containing purified CQ-sensitive and CQ-resistant PfCRTs and measured their transport activities. All PfCRTs tested actively took up tetraethylammonium, verapamil, CQ, basic amino acids, polypeptides, and polyamines at the expense of an electrochemical proton gradient. CQ-resistant PfCRT exhibited decreased affinity for CQ, resulting in increased CQ uptake. Furthermore, CQ competitively inhibited amino acid transport. Thus, PfCRT is a H(+)-coupled polyspecific nutrient and drug exporter.

A polarly localized transporter for efficient manganese uptake in rice.

Manganese is an essential metal for plant growth. A number of transporters involved in the uptake of manganese from soils, and its translocation to the shoot, have been identified in Arabidopsis and rice. However, the transporter responsible for the radial transport of manganese out of root exodermis and endodermis cells and into the root stele remains unknown. Here, we show that metal tolerance protein 9 (MTP9), a member of the cation diffusion facilitator family, is a critical player in this process in rice (Oryza sativa). We find that MTP9 is mainly expressed in roots, and that the resulting protein is localized to the plasma membrane of exo- and endodermis cells, at the proximal side of these cell layers (opposite the manganese uptake transporter Nramp5, which is found at the distal side). We demonstrate that MTP9 has manganese transport activity by expression in proteoliposomes and yeast, and show that knockout of MTP9 in rice reduces manganese uptake and its translocation to shoots. We conclude that at least in rice MTP9 is required for manganese translocation to the root stele, and thereby manganese uptake.

Identification of a mammalian vesicular polyamine transporter.

Spermine and spermidine act as neuromodulators upon binding to the extracellular site(s) of various ionotropic receptors, such as N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors. To gain access to the receptors, polyamines synthesized in neurons and astrocytes are stored in secretory vesicles and released upon depolarization. Although vesicular storage is mediated in an ATP-dependent, reserpine-sensitive fashion, the transporter responsible for this process remains unknown. SLC18B1 is the fourth member of the SLC18 transporter family, which includes vesicular monoamine transporters and vesicular acetylcholine transporter. Proteoliposomes containing purified human SLC18B1 protein actively transport spermine and spermidine by exchange of H(+). SLC18B1 protein is predominantly expressed in the hippocampus and is associated with vesicles in astrocytes. SLC18B1 gene knockdown decreased both SLC18B1 protein and spermine/spermidine contents in astrocytes. These results indicated that SLC18B1 encodes a vesicular polyamine transporter (VPAT).