"Let's get back to normal": emotions mediate the effects of persuasive messages on willingness to vaccinate for COVID-19.

Objective: We examined the effectiveness of three different messages for persuading individuals to get vaccinated against COVID-19, and the role that emotions play in persuasion. Methods: Four hundred-thirty-six participants reported their concern about the COVID-19 pandemic and confidence/hesitancy toward vaccines. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three text conditions: (1) self-interest: a persuasive message that focused on how much of a "serious threat COVID-19 is to you," and to get vaccinated to "protect yourself"; (2) self-interest + altruistic: a persuasive message that focused on the "threat to you and your community" and to get vaccinated to "protect you and your loved ones"; (3) self-interest + altruistic + normal: a persuasive message that included (2) but added "This is the only way we can get back to a normal life."; and, (4) a baseline control: no text. After reading, participants reported their emotions toward COVID-19 vaccines and their willingness to get vaccinated. Results: Individuals in the self-interest + altruistic + normal condition were more willing to get vaccinated compared to the control condition and self-interest + altruistic condition. However, there were no differences in willingness between the self-interest + altruistic + normal condition and the self-interest condition. Moreover, emotions mediated relations between vaccine confidence/hesitancy and willingness. Conclusion: A message that focuses on "getting back to normal" can achieve important public health action by increasing vaccine uptake to protect the population. Future work is needed across multiple countries and contexts (i.e., non-pandemic) to assess message effectiveness.

Prolonged grief and the disruption of meaning: Establishing a mediation model.

This study aimed to test the hypothesis that meaning making is a mediating process in the relationship between risk factors for prolonged grief disorder (PGD) and subsequent emergence of PGD symptomatology. A survey design was employed with prospective measurement of PGD. The following variables were assessed 2-12 months postloss among adults across North America and Europe (N = 357): (a) risk factors for PGD (insecure attachment, social support, neuroticism, violent loss, and spousal loss) and (b) meaning made. Meaning made was measured using the Grief and Meaning Reconstruction Inventory (GMRI) as well as using the Integration of Stressful Life Experiences-Short Form (ISLES-SF). At a 7-10-months follow-up (n = 171) symptoms of PGD were assessed. The mean age at the second assessment point was 44.3 years (SD = 16.1) and the majority of the sample identified as female (71.9%). Process analysis was employed to test a series of simple mediation models. When the GMRI was used as a measure of meaning, the indirect effect of each risk factor on PGD symptoms, as mediated by meaning made, was significant (95% CI). When the ISLES-SF was used to measure meaning, the indirect effect of each risk factor with the exception of violent loss was significant (95% CI). The study demonstrates that meaning making serves to mediate the adverse impact of multiple PGD risk factors on the development of PGD symptomatology. Specifically, the study suggests that PGD risk factors exacerbate symptoms of PGD by impeding the meaning-making process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Rumination moderates the role of meaning in the development of prolonged grief symptomatology.

OBJECTIVE: To address the etiology of prolonged grief disorder (PGD) by examining whether rumination moderates the role of meaning-making in mediating the impact of PGD risk factors. METHOD: A survey assessing PGD risk factors (low social support, insecure attachment, violent loss, neuroticism, and loss of a spouse), meaning, and rumination was administered 2-12 months postloss among adults across North America and Europe (mean age = 44.3, 71.9% female). At a 7-10 months follow-up, symptoms of PGD were assessed (n = 171). RESULTS: When measuring meaning with the Grief and Meaning Reconstruction Inventory, the moderated mediation pathway was significant for each PGD-risk factor. However, when measuring meaning with the Integration of Stressful Life Experiences-Short Form, the pathway was significant for every risk factors except violent loss. CONCLUSIONS: Rumination appears to moderate meaning-making in the development of PGD symptomatology. These findings highlight rumination as a target for intervention with at-risk grievers.

Prolonged grief symptomatology following violent loss: the mediating role of meaning.

Background: Prolonged Grief Disorder (PGD) is over-represented among those who have lost loved ones to violent causes. To tailor PGD interventions for this vulnerable population it is critical to examine the aetiology of PGD specifically in the context of violent death bereavement. Previous studies have suggested that violent loss increases symptoms of PGD by hindering the mourner's ability to make meaning of the death or its aftermath. However, these studies have relied on cross sectional data that preclude genuine prediction and have not differentiated among specific themes of meaning. Objective: This study aimed to identify specific themes of meaning that mediate the detrimental impact of violent loss on subsequent emergence of PGD symptomatology among the violently bereft. Method: A longitudinal, prospective design (N = 171) was used to assess violent loss and themes of meaning an average of six months post-loss allowing for prediction of PGD symptoms an average of eight months later. Results: Violent loss had a significant indirect effect on PGD symptomatology when meaning themes focusing on sense of peace and continuing bonds served as mediators. Conclusions: This study demonstrates the mediating role that specific meaning themes play in the development of PGD symptomatology following violent loss. These findings highlight the potential benefits of applying a meaning-based intervention approach with the violently bereft.

Antecedentes: El Trastorno de Duelo Prolongado (PGD en su sigla en inglés) está sobrerrepresentado entre aquellos que han perdido a sus seres queridos por causas violentas. Para adaptar las intervenciones de PGD para esta población vulnerable, es fundamental examinar la etiología del PGD, específicamente en el contexto de la experiencia de pérdida (bereavement) violenta. Estudios previos han sugerido que la pérdida violenta aumenta los síntomas del PGD al obstaculizar la capacidad del doliente (mourner) de dar sentido a la muerte o sus consecuencias. Sin embargo, estos estudios se han basado en datos transversales que impiden una predicción genuina y no han diferenciado entre temas específicos de significado. Objetivo: Este estudio tuvo como objetivo identificar los temas específicos de significado que median el impacto perjudicial de la pérdida violenta en la aparición posterior de la sintomatología PGD entre los dolientes. Método: Se utilizó un diseño prospectivo longitudinal (N = 171) para evaluar la pérdida violenta y los temas de significado, aproximadamente 6 meses después de la pérdida, lo que permitió la predicción de los síntomas de PGD en un promedio de 8 meses después. Resultados: La pérdida violenta tuvo un efecto indirecto significativo en la sintomatología del PGD cuando los temas de significado que se centran en la sensación de paz y continuidad de los vínculos/lazos sirvieron como mediadores. Conclusiones: El estudio demuestra el rol mediador que desempeñan los temas de específicos de significado en el desarrollo de la sintomatología del PGD después de la pérdida violenta. Estos hallazgos resaltan los beneficios potenciales de aplicar un enfoque de intervención basado en el significado con los dolientes.

Measuring emotions during epistemic activities: the Epistemically-Related Emotion Scales.

Measurement instruments assessing multiple emotions during epistemic activities are largely lacking. We describe the construction and validation of the Epistemically-Related Emotion Scales, which measure surprise, curiosity, enjoyment, confusion, anxiety, frustration, and boredom occurring during epistemic cognitive activities. The instrument was tested in a multinational study of emotions during learning from conflicting texts (N = 438 university students from the United States, Canada, and Germany). The findings document the reliability, internal validity, and external validity of the instrument. A seven-factor model best fit the data, suggesting that epistemically-related emotions should be conceptualised in terms of discrete emotion categories, and the scales showed metric invariance across the North American and German samples. Furthermore, emotion scores changed over time as a function of conflicting task information and related significantly to perceived task value and use of cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies.

Achievement goals and emotions: The mediational roles of perceived progress, control, and value.

BACKGROUND: The link between achievement goals and achievement emotions is well established; however, research exploring potential mediators of this relationship is lacking. The control-value theory of achievement emotions (Pekrun, 2006, Educational Psychology Review, 18, 315) posits that perceptions of control and value mediate the relationship between achievement goals and achievement emotions, whereas the bidirectional theory of affect (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002, Educational Psychologist, 37, 69) proposes that perceived progress mediates this relationship. AIMS: The present study empirically evaluated three hypothesized mediators of the effects of achievement goals on learning-related emotions as proposed in the control-value theory and the bidirectional theory of affect. SAMPLE: Undergraduate students (N = 273) from humanities, social science, and STEM disciplines participated. METHODS: Participants completed web-based questionnaires evaluating academic achievement goals, perceptions of control, perceived task value, and achievement emotions. RESULTS: Results provided empirical support primarily for perceived progress as a mediator of mastery-approach goal effects on positive emotions (enjoyment, hope), showing indirect effects of mastery- and performance-approach goals on outcome-related emotions (hope, anxiety) via perceived control. Indirect effects of mastery- and performance-approach goals were further observed on anxiety via perceived value, with higher value levels predicting greater anxiety. CONCLUSIONS: Study findings partially support Linnenbrink and Pintrich's (2002, Educational Psychologist, 37, 69) bidirectional theory of affect while underscoring the potential for indirect effects of goals on emotions through perceived control as proposed by Pekrun (2006, Educational Psychology Review, 18, 315).

To master or perform? Exploring relations between achievement goals and conceptual change learning.

BACKGROUND: Research is needed to explore conceptual change in relation to achievement goal orientations and depth of processing. AIMS: To address this need, we examined relations between achievement goals, use of deep versus shallow processing strategies, and conceptual change learning using a think-aloud protocol. SAMPLE AND METHOD: Seventy-three undergraduate students were assessed on their prior knowledge and misconceptions about Newtonian mechanics, and then reported their achievement goals and participated in think-aloud protocols while reading Newtonian physics texts. RESULTS: A mastery-approach goal orientation positively predicted deep processing strategies, shallow processing strategies, and conceptual change. In contrast, a performance-approach goal orientation did not predict either of the processing strategies, but negatively predicted conceptual change. A performance-avoidance goal orientation negatively predicted deep processing strategies and conceptual change. Moreover, deep and shallow processing strategies positively predicted conceptual change as well as recall. Finally, both deep and shallow processing strategies mediated relations between mastery-approach goals and conceptual change. CONCLUSION: Results provide some support for Dole and Sinatra's (1998) Cognitive Reconstruction of Knowledge Model of conceptual change but also challenge specific facets with regard to the role of depth of processing in conceptual change.

Modern psychometrics for assessing achievement goal orientation: a Rasch analysis.

BACKGROUND: A program of research is needed that assesses the psychometric properties of instruments designed to quantify students' achievement goal orientations to clarify inconsistencies across previous studies and to provide a stronger basis for future research. AIM: We conducted traditional psychometric and modern Rasch-model analyses of the Achievement Goals Questionnaire (AGQ, Elliot & McGregor, 2001) and the Patterns of Adaptive Learning Scale (PALS, Midgley et al., 2000) to provide an in-depth analysis of the two most popular instruments in educational psychology. SAMPLES AND METHODS: For Study 1, 217 undergraduate students enrolled in educational psychology courses participated. Thirty-four were male and 181 were female (two did not respond). Participants completed the AGQ in the context of their educational psychology class. For Study 2, 126 undergraduate students enrolled in educational psychology courses participated. Thirty were male and 95 were female (one did not respond). Participants completed the PALS in the context of their educational psychology class. RESULTS: Traditional psychometric assessments of the AGQ and PALS replicated previous studies. For both, reliability estimates ranged from good to very good for raw subscale scores and fit for the models of goal orientations were good. Based on traditional psychometrics, the AGQ and PALS are valid and reliable indicators of achievement goals. Rasch analyses revealed that estimates of reliability for items were very good but respondent ability estimates varied from poor to good for both the AGQ and PALS. These findings indicate that items validly and reliably reflect a group's aggregate goal orientation, but using either instrument to characterize an individual's goal orientation is hazardous.

Using a multitrait-multimethod analysis to examine conceptual similarities of three self-regulated learning inventories.

BACKGROUND: A programme of construct validity research is necessary to clarify previous research on self-regulation and to provide a stronger basis for future research. AIM: A multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) analysis was conducted to assess convergent and discriminant validity of three self-regulation measures: the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI; Weinstein, 1987), the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ; Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, & McKeachie, 1993) and the Meta-cognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI; Schraw & Dennison, 1994). Method bias across all three inventories was also examined. SAMPLE AND METHOD: Three hundred and eighteen undergraduate university students (255 female, 61 male, 2 did not specify) were recruited from various courses to participate in research on perceptions about studying and study methods. Participants spent 30-60 minutes completing all three inventories. RESULTS: Evidence for convergent validity was found at the matrix level, but was attenuated when examined at the individual parameter level. Evidence for discriminant validity among traits was modest, and common method bias was evident across all three measures. CONCLUSIONS: Results revealed the three inventories yielded different results, which suggests that researchers should be selective in the inventory they use to assess self-regulated learning (SRL).