Novel stem cell technologies are powerful tools to understand the impact of human factors on Plasmodium falciparum malaria.

Plasmodium falciparum parasites have a complex life cycle, but the most clinically relevant stage of the disease is the invasion of erythrocytes and the proliferation of the parasite in the blood. The influence of human genetic traits on malaria has been known for a long time, however understanding the role of the proteins involved is hampered by the anuclear nature of erythrocytes that makes them inaccessible to genetic tools. Here we overcome this limitation using stem cells to generate erythroid cells with an in-vitro differentiation protocol and assess parasite invasion with an adaptation of flow cytometry to detect parasite hemozoin. We combine this strategy with reprogramming of patient cells to Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and genome editing to understand the role of key genes and human traits in malaria infection. We show that deletion of basigin ablates invasion while deletion of ATP2B4 has a minor effect and that erythroid cells from reprogrammed patient-derived HbBart α-thalassemia samples poorly support infection. The possibility to obtain patient-secific and genetically modifed erythoid cells offers an unparalleled opportunity to study the role of human genes and polymorphisms in malaria allowing preservation of the genomic background to demonstrate their function and understand their mechanisms.

Identifying proteins bound to native mitotic ESC chromosomes reveals chromatin repressors are important for compaction.

Epigenetic information is transmitted from mother to daughter cells through mitosis. Here, to identify factors that might play a role in conveying epigenetic memory through cell division, we report on the isolation of unfixed, native chromosomes from metaphase-arrested cells using flow cytometry and perform LC-MS/MS to identify chromosome-bound proteins. A quantitative proteomic comparison between metaphase-arrested cell lysates and chromosome-sorted samples reveals a cohort of proteins that were significantly enriched on mitotic ESC chromosomes. These include pluripotency-associated transcription factors, repressive chromatin-modifiers such as PRC2 and DNA methyl-transferases, and proteins governing chromosome architecture. Deletion of PRC2, Dnmt1/3a/3b or Mecp2 in ESCs leads to an increase in the size of individual mitotic chromosomes, consistent with de-condensation. Similar results were obtained by the experimental cleavage of cohesin. Thus, we identify chromosome-bound factors in pluripotent stem cells during mitosis and reveal that PRC2, DNA methylation and Mecp2 are required to maintain chromosome compaction.

Chromosome Analysis Using Benchtop Flow Analysers and High Speed Cell Sorters.

The use of the DNA dyes Hoechst (HO) and chromomycin A3 (CA3) has become the preferred combination for the bivariate analysis of chromosomes from both human and animals. This analysis requires a flow cytometer equipped with lasers of specific wavelength and of higher power than is typical on a conventional bench top flow cytometer. In this study, we have investigated the resolution of chromosome peaks in a human cell line with normal flow karyotype using different combinations of DNA dyes on a number of flow cytometers available in a flow cytometry core facility. Chromosomes were prepared from the human cell line using a modified polyamine isolation buffer. The bivariate flow karyotypes of different DNA dyes combination; 4'-6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) or Hoechst with propidium iodide (PI), obtained from different flow cytometers were compared to the reference flow karyotype of DAPI or Hoechst with chromomycin A3, generated from a Mo-Flo cell sorter using laser power settings of 300 mW each of UV and 457 nm. Good chromosome separation was observed in most of the flow cytometers used in the study. This study demonstrates that chromosome analysis and sorting can also be performed on benchtop flow cytometers equipped with the standard solid state 488 and 355 nm lasers, using a DNA dye combination of DAPI or Hoechst with PI. © 2018 The Authors. Cytometry Part A published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of International Society for Advancement of Cytometry.

Evolutionary dynamics of Anolis sex chromosomes revealed by sequencing of flow sorting-derived microchromosome-specific DNA.

Squamate reptiles show a striking diversity in modes of sex determination, including both genetic (XY or ZW) and temperature-dependent sex determination systems. The genomes of only a handful of species have been sequenced, analyzed and assembled including the genome of Anolis carolinensis. Despite a high genome coverage, only macrochromosomes of A. carolinensis were assembled whereas the content of most microchromosomes remained unclear. Most of the Anolis species have homomorphic XY sex chromosome system. However, some species have large heteromorphic XY chromosomes (e.g., A. sagrei) and even multiple sex chromosomes systems (e.g. A. pogus), that were shown to be derived from fusions of the ancestral XY with microautosomes. We applied next generation sequencing of flow sorting-derived chromosome-specific DNA pools to characterize the content and composition of microchromosomes in A. carolinensis and A. sagrei. Comparative analysis of sequenced chromosome-specific DNA pools revealed that the A. sagrei XY sex chromosomes contain regions homologous to several microautosomes of A. carolinensis. We suggest that the sex chromosomes of A. sagrei are derived by fusions of the ancestral sex chromosome with three microautosomes and subsequent loss of some genetic content on the Y chromosome.

A First Generation Comparative Chromosome Map between Guinea Pig (Cavia porcellus) and Humans.

The domesticated guinea pig, Cavia porcellus (Hystricomorpha, Rodentia), is an important laboratory species and a model for a number of human diseases. Nevertheless, genomic tools for this species are lacking; even its karyotype is poorly characterized. The guinea pig belongs to Hystricomorpha, a widespread and important group of rodents; so far the chromosomes of guinea pigs have not been compared with that of other hystricomorph species or with any other mammals. We generated full sets of chromosome-specific painting probes for the guinea pig by flow sorting and microdissection, and for the first time, mapped the chromosomal homologies between guinea pig and human by reciprocal chromosome painting. Our data demonstrate that the guinea pig karyotype has undergone extensive rearrangements: 78 synteny-conserved human autosomal segments were delimited in the guinea pig genome. The high rate of genome evolution in the guinea pig may explain why the HSA7/16 and HSA16/19 associations presumed ancestral for eutherians and the three syntenic associations (HSA1/10, 3/19, and 9/11) considered ancestral for rodents were not found in C. porcellus. The comparative chromosome map presented here is a starting point for further development of physical and genetic maps of the guinea pig as well as an aid for genome assembly assignment to specific chromosomes. Furthermore, the comparative mapping will allow a transfer of gene map data from other species. The probes developed here provide a genomic toolkit, which will make the guinea pig a key species to unravel the evolutionary biology of the Hystricomorph rodents.

Chromosomal evolution among leaf-nosed nectarivorous bats--evidence from cross-species chromosome painting (Phyllostomidae, Chiroptera).

BACKGROUND: New World leaf-nosed bats, Phyllostomidae, represent a lineage of Chiroptera marked by unprecedented morphological/ecological diversity and extensive intergeneric chromosomal reorganization. There are still disagreements regarding their systematic relationships due to morphological convergence among some groups. Their history of karyotypic evolution also remains to be documented. RESULTS: To better understand the evolutionary relationships within Phyllostomidae, we developed chromosome paints from the bat species Macrotus californicus. We tested the potential of these paints as phylogenetic tools by looking for chromosomal signatures in two lineages of nectarivorous phyllostomids whose independent origins have been statistically supported by molecular phylogenies. By examining the chromosomal homologies defined by chromosome painting among two representatives of the subfamily Glossophaginae (Glossophaga soricina and Anoura cultrata) and one species from the subfamily Lonchophyllinae (Lonchophylla concava), we found chromosomal correspondence in regions not previously detected by other comparative cytogenetic techniques. We proposed the corresponding human chromosomal segments for chromosomes of the investigated species and found two syntenic associations shared by G. soricina and A. cultrata. CONCLUSION: Comparative painting with whole chromosome-specific paints of M. californicus demonstrates an extensive chromosomal reorganization within the two lineages of nectarivorous phyllostomids, with a large number of chromosomes shared between M. californicus and G. soricina. We show that the evolution of nectar-feeding bats occurs mainly by reshuffling of chiropteran Evolutionarily Conserved Units (ECUs). Robertsonian fusions/fissions and inversions seem to be important modifiers of phyllostomid karyotypes, and autapomorphic character states are common within species. Macrotus californicus chromosome paints will be a valuable tool for documenting the pattern of karyotypic evolution within Phyllostomidae radiation.

Laser excitation power and the flow cytometric resolution of complex karyotypes.

The analytical resolution of individual chromosome peaks in the flow karyotype of cell lines is dependent on sample preparation and the detection sensitivity of the flow cytometer. We have investigated the effect of laser power on the resolution of chromosome peaks in cell lines with complex karyotypes. Chromosomes were prepared from a human gastric cancer cell line and a cell line from a patient with an abnormal phenotype using a modified polyamine isolation buffer. The stained chromosome suspensions were analyzed on a MoFlo sorter (Beckman Coulter) equipped with two water-cooled lasers (Coherent). A bivariate flow karyotype was obtained from each of the cell lines at various laser power settings and compared to a karyotype generated using laser power settings of 300 mW. The best separation of chromosome peaks was obtained with laser powers of 300 mW. This study demonstrates the requirement for high-laser powers for the accurate detection and purification of chromosomes, particularly from complex karyotypes, using a conventional flow cytometer.

Avian comparative genomics: reciprocal chromosome painting between domestic chicken (Gallus gallus) and the stone curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus, Charadriiformes)--an atypical species with low diploid number.

The chicken is the most extensively studied species in birds and thus constitutes an ideal reference for comparative genomics in birds. Comparative cytogenetic studies indicate that the chicken has retained many chromosome characters of the ancestral avian karyotype. The homology between chicken macrochromosomes (1-9 and Z) and their counterparts in more than 40 avian species of 10 different orders has been established by chromosome painting. However, the avian homologues of chicken microchromosomes remain to be defined. Moreover, no reciprocal chromosome painting in birds has been performed due to the lack of chromosome-specific probes from other avian species. Here we have generated a set of chromosome-specific paints using flow cytometry that cover the whole genome of the stone curlew (Burhinus oedicnemus, Charadriiformes), a species with one of the lowest diploid number so far reported in birds, as well as paints from more microchromosomes of the chicken. A genome-wide comparative map between the chicken and the stone curlew has been constructed for the first time based on reciprocal chromosome painting. The results indicate that extensive chromosome fusions underlie the sharp decrease in the diploid number in the stone curlew. To a lesser extent, chromosome fissions and inversions occurred also during the evolution of the stone curlew. It is anticipated that this complete set of chromosome painting probes from the first Neoaves species will become an invaluable tool for avian comparative cytogenetics.

Report of a female patient with mental retardation and tall stature due to a chromosomal rearrangement disrupting the OPHN1 gene on Xq12.

We report on a patient with mental retardation, seizures and tall stature with advanced bone age in whom a de novo apparently balanced chromosomal rearrangement 46,XX,t(X;9)(q12;p13.3) was identified. Using array CGH on flow-sorted derivative chromosomes (array painting) and subsequent FISH and qPCR analysis, we mapped and sequenced both breakpoints. The Xq12 breakpoint was located within the gene coding for oligophrenin 1 (OPHN1) whereas the 9p13.3 breakpoint was assigned to a non-coding segment within a gene dense region. Disruption of OPHN1 by the Xq12 breakpoint was considered the major cause of the abnormal phenotype observed in the proband.

Flow analysis and sorting of microchromosomes (<3 Mb).

BACKGROUND: The analysis and isolation of high numbers of chromosomes smaller than 3 Mb in size (microchromosomes) with good purity is dependent primarily on the detection sensitivity of the flow cytometer and the precision of the sort unit. The aim of this study was to investigate the capability of using a conventional flow cytometer for the detection and sorting at high purity microchromosomes with an estimated size of 2.7 Mb. METHODS: Chromosomes were isolated from a human cell line containing a pair of X-derived microchromosomes, using a modified polyamine isolation buffer. The chromosome preparation was labeled with Hoechst and Chromomycin and analyzed and purified using a MoFlo sorter (DAKO) configured for high-speed sorting. The purity of the flow-sorted microchromosomes was assessed by reverse chromosome painting. RESULTS: Improved resolution of the peak of microchromosomes in a bivariate plot of Hoechst versus Chromomycin fluorescence was obtainable after discriminating clumps and debris based on gating data within a FSC versus pulse width plot. CONCLUSIONS: Chromosomes of smaller size, less than 3 Mb, can be detected with high resolution and flow-sorted with high purity using a conventional flow sorter.

Chromosome paints from single copies of chromosomes.

We have used OmniPlex library technology to construct chromosome painting probes from single copies of flow sorted chromosomes. We show that this whole genome amplification technology is particularly efficient at amplifying single copies of chromosomes for the production of paints and that single aberrant chromosomes can be analysed in this way using reverse chromosome painting. The efficient generation of painting probes from single copies of sorted chromosomes has the advantage that the probe must be specific for the chromosome sorted and will not suffer from contamination from other chromosomes particularly in situations where flow karyotype peaks are poorly resolved. These initial results suggest that OmniPlex whole genome amplification will be equally effective in other cytogenetic applications where only small amounts of DNA are available, i.e. from single cells or from small pieces of microdissected tissue.