New molecular evidence on the members of the genus Ortholinea (Cnidaria, Myxozoa) and the description of Ortholinea hamsiensis n. sp. infecting the urinary bladder of European anchovy Engraulis engrasicolus in the Black Sea.

Members of the genus Ortholinea are among the worldwide distributed myxozoan parasites that mainly infect marine fish. In this study, a new myxosporean species, Ortholinea hamsiensis n. sp., was isolated from the urinary bladder of European anchovy Engraulis engrasicolus collected from the Sinop coasts of the Black Sea. The prevalence and density values of infection were 1.4% and 1­5 individuals in the field of view (1 + ), respectively. Mature myxospores are subspherical with slight tapering down to the less pronounced tip in the frontal view and subspherical in the sutural view. Myxospores measured 9.1 ± 0.25 (8.8­9.9) µm in length, 9.2 ± 0.11 (8.9­9.4) µm in thickness, and 8.4 ± 0.33 (8.2-9.1) µm in width. Two polar capsules equal in size measured 3.1 ± 0.11 (3.0­3.3) µm in length and 2.7 ± 0.11 (2.6­2.9) µm in width. The polar tubule had 3­4 coils. Along with morphological peculiarities, the results of the 18S rDNA also revealed it to be a new species for science compared to the other species of the genus. In this study, another myxosporean species O. gobiusi was also detected in round goby Neogobius melanostomus with a prevalence of infection value of 4.8% and a density of 1­5 individuals in the field of view (1 + ). The present study also provided the first data of 18S rDNA of O. gobiusi from N. melanostomus and type species of the genus O. divergens from Gobius niger and the phylogenetic relationships of these species with other Ortholinea species have been revealed.

Combination among VEP, OCT and TCD data in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis during attack-free period.

AIMS: Multiple sclerosis (MS) is characterized by inflammation, demyelination, glial cell pathology and axonal injury in the central nervous system, and also progressive axonal loss of the optic nerve in cases with optic neuritis (ON). The previous transcranial Doppler (TCD) investigations suggest cortical hyperreactivity in patients with relapsing-remitting Multiple sclerosis (RRMS). We investigated the effect of ON involvement on visual reactivity. MATERIAL AND METHODS: One hundred thirty patients with RRMS during attack-free period and 12 healthy subjects were enrolled to the study. Visual evoked potential (VEP), optic coherence tomography (OCT) and TCD examinations of all subjects were performed. RESULTS: Cerebrovascular reactivity measured with breath holding (BH) test was found to be normal. VEP amplitude, visual reactivity and peripapillary retinal nerve fibre layer (pRNFL) measurements were found to be low in patients with ON involvement, whereas VEP latencies were long. Visual reactivity was negatively correlated with VEP amplitude and RFNL measurements, and positively correlated with VEP latency. CONCLUSIONS: The present study supports that cerebrovascular reactivity is preserved in patients with RRMS except for attacks, and neurovascular reactivity is increased in patients without ON involvement.

Molecular and morphological description of Ceratomyxa scophthalmi sp. nov. (Myxozoa) infecting Scophthalmus maeoticus and first report of Myxidium finnmarchicum in the Black Sea.

In the present study, 2 species of myxozoan parasites, the novel Ceratomyxa scophthalmi sp. nov. and Myxidium finnmarchicum, were documented from the gallbladder of Scophthalmus maeoticus inhabiting the Turkish Black Sea coast at Sinop. C. scophthalmi sp. nov. had mostly spherical, clavate, and fine-grained polymorphic plasmodia that ranged in diameter from 16.0 to 29.0 µm. Spores were arcuate with a convex anterior margin and concave posterior. Valves of spores were highly elongated and unequal in thickness with one valve 1.1-1.3 times thicker than the other. Valves narrowed gradually toward slightly truncated ends. The mean (range) dimensions of spores were 9.4 (8.5-10.0) µm in length and 49.6 (44.5-55.0) µm in thickness, with polar capsules that were 3.1 (2.7-3.5) µm in length and 3.2 (2.7-3.5) µm in width. Polar filaments were coiled with 4-5 turns. Large numbers of immature forms of C. scophthalmi sp. nov., which were often 'crumpled', and mature forms were found together in the gallbladder bile. Along with morphological differences, phylogenetic analysis based on 18S rDNA, including pairwise nucleotide similarities with other related Ceratomyxa species, suggests C. scophthalmi as a novel species. Moreover, this report provides the first morphological and molecular descriptions of M. finnmarchicum outside of its original geographical location and type host species.

Influence of the seasonal and host related factors on the metazoan parasites of Chelon saliens (Mugilidae) in the Turkish coast of the Black Sea.

The leaping mullet Chelon saliens is one of the economically significant fish species and the revealing its parasite fauna in relation with some ecological and host related factors will provide new data for our current knowledge. A total of 165 leaping mullet were collected from Sinop coasts of the Black Sea in the period from September 2015 to August 2016 and investigated for parasites. Eleven parasite species including Myxobolus parvus, Myxobolus sp., Sphaerospora mugilis (Myxozoa), Ligophorus szidati, Solostamenides mugilis (Monogenea), Schikhobalotrema sparisomae, Saccocoelium tensum, Saccocoelium obesum (Digenea), Hysterothylacium aduncum (Nematoda), Neoechinorhynchus sp. (Acanthocephala) and Ergasilus lizae (Copepoda) have been identified. The overall infection prevalence, mean intensity and mean abundance values were 65.5%, 26.2 and 17.2, respectively. The overall infection prevalence was dominated by L. szidati, followed by M. parvus and Digenea-group. On the other hand, the overall mean intensity values were dominated by Digenea-group, followed by L. szidati and E. lizae, respectively, while the mean abundance values were dominated by L. szidati, followed by Digenea-group and E. lizae. The infection indices of all identified parasites were also calculated in relation with length classes and sex of fish as well as season and the differences were evaluated statistically. Seasonally significant differences in the infection prevalence and mean abundance were found for Digenea-group, Ligophorus szidati and Neoechinorhynchus sp. These differences were also significant in the length classes of Digenea-group and Ligophorus szidati. This study is the first investigation on seasonal and host related dynamics of parasites of C. saliens in the southern coasts of the Black Sea and all investigated factors were found to influence the infection indices of dominating parasite species.

Cyber-attack method and perpetrator prediction using machine learning algorithms.

Cyber-attacks have become one of the biggest problems of the world. They cause serious financial damages to countries and people every day. The increase in cyber-attacks also brings along cyber-crime. The key factors in the fight against crime and criminals are identifying the perpetrators of cyber-crime and understanding the methods of attack. Detecting and avoiding cyber-attacks are difficult tasks. However, researchers have recently been solving these problems by developing security models and making predictions through artificial intelligence methods. A high number of methods of crime prediction are available in the literature. On the other hand, they suffer from a deficiency in predicting cyber-crime and cyber-attack methods. This problem can be tackled by identifying an attack and the perpetrator of such attack, using actual data. The data include the type of crime, gender of perpetrator, damage and methods of attack. The data can be acquired from the applications of the persons who were exposed to cyber-attacks to the forensic units. In this paper, we analyze cyber-crimes in two different models with machine-learning methods and predict the effect of the defined features on the detection of the cyber-attack method and the perpetrator. We used eight machine-learning methods in our approach and concluded that their accuracy ratios were close. The Support Vector Machine Linear was found out to be the most successful in the cyber-attack method, with an accuracy rate of 95.02%. In the first model, we could predict the types of attacks that the victims were likely to be exposed to with a high accuracy. The Logistic Regression was the leading method in detecting attackers with an accuracy rate of 65.42%. In the second model, we predicted whether the perpetrators could be identified by comparing their characteristics. Our results have revealed that the probability of cyber-attack decreases as the education and income level of victim increases. We believe that cyber-crime units will use the proposed model. It will also facilitate the detection of cyber-attacks and make the fight against these attacks easier and more effective.

Investigation of Strain Effects on Photoelectrochemical Performance of Flexible ZnO Electrodes.

In this report, the growth of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanocrystals with various morphologies, nanoflower, nanosheet, and nanorod, on flexible stainless steel (SS) foils to be utilized as photoanodes in photoelectrochemical (PEC) solar cells has been presented. It has been aimed to provide flexibility and adaptability for the next generation systems with the incorporation of SS foils as electrode into PEC cells. Therefore, physical deformation tests have been applied to the prepared ZnO thin film photoanodes. These thin films have been thoroughly characterized before and after straining for better understanding the relationship between the morphology, straining effect and photoelectrochemical efficiency. We observed a notable increase in the maximum incident photon-to-current efficiency (IPCE) and durability of all ZnO photoelectrodes after straining process. The increase in IPCE values by 1.5 and 2.5 folds at 370 nm has been observed for nanoflower and nanorod morphologies, respectively after being strained. The maximum IPCE of 69% has been calculated for the ZnO nanorod structures after straining. Bending of the SS electrodes resulted in the more oriented nanorod arrays compared to its flat counterpart, which improved both the light absorption and also the photo-conversion efficiency drastically. The finite-difference time-domain simulations have also been carried out to examine the optical properties of flat and bent ZnO electrodes. Finally, it has been concluded that SS photoanodes bearing ZnO semiconducting material with nanoflower and nanorod morphologies are very promising candidates for the solar hydrogen generator systems in terms of efficiency, durability, flexibility, and lightness in weight.

Effect of statins on hearing function and subjective tinnitus in hyperlipidemic patients.

INTRODUCTION: It is known that hyperlipidemia reduces hearing functions. In this study, we aimed to study the effect of antihyperlipidemic drugs on hearing functions and tinnitus. METHODS: Eighty-four patients aged 18 to 84, who were diagnosed with hyperlipidemia and started treatment with the statin group (atorvastatin 20 mg and 40 mg, rosuvastatin 10 mg and 20 mg, and simvastatin 20 mg) of antihyperlipidemic drugs, were included in this study. All patients underwent pure-tone audiometry before starting treatment with antihyperlipidemic drugs. Patients with tinnitus were evaluated by Tinnitus Severity Index and Visual Analogue Scale. In the 6th month of therapy, otologic examination, pure-tone audiometry and tinnitus evaluation of the patients were repeated. RESULTS: No significant difference was found in the pure-tone averages of the patients before and after statin use (p > 0.05). However, it was found in the audiometry that, after statin use, all drugs caused to statistically significant decrease in the hearing thresholds at 6000 Hertz (p < 0.05). Also, a strong increase was found in the Speech Discrimination percentages after treatment in patients using rosuvastatin 10 mg (p = 0.022). A significant decrease was found in the tinnitus frequency, duration, severity and degree of annoyance in patients using rosuvastatin 10 mg and 20 mg (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Statin group of drugs can have a positive effect on the hearing functions and subjective tinnitus. In particular, it is seen that rosuvastatin group of statins has a more notable effect on tinnitus. It was considered that further studies with larger patient groups are needed.

Polarization-insensitive beam splitters using all-dielectric phase gradient metasurfaces at visible wavelengths.

Beam splitters play important roles in several optical applications, such as interferometers, spectroscopy, and optical communications. In this study, we propose and numerically examine polarization-insensitive beam splitters utilizing two-step phase gradient all-dielectric metasurfaces in the visible spectrum. The metasurface is made of periodically arranged binary unit cells, and phase difference between neighboring unit cells on the surface is 180 deg. The metasurface is shown to have a special phase gradient whose sign changes periodically. The angle of the split beams on both sides and the corresponding total transmission value at 532 nm wavelength are found to be ±46.8° and 0.90, respectively.

Diagnostic potential of Brucella melitensis Rev1 native Omp28 precursor in human brucellosis.

Serologic tests for brucellosis aim to detect antibodies produced against membranous lipopolysaccharide of bacteria. Diagnostic use of this method is limited due to false positiveness. This study evaluates an alternative antigen to lipopolysaccharides (LPS), outer membrane 28-precursor-protein, of Brucella melitensis Rev1 for its diagnostic value. Omp28 precursor of B. melitensis Rev1 was cloned, expressed, and purified. 6-His and sumo epitope tags were used to tag the protein at N-termini. Omp28 gene was amplified based on the ORF sequence and cloned into a pETSUMO vector. The recombinant construct was propagated in Escherichia coli One Shot® Mach1™ cells then transformed into E. coli BL21(D3) cells for protein expression. The purified protein was studied in an indirect ELISA for diagnosis of brucellosis. Sera samples from 60 patients were screened by ELISA and the results were compared to Rose Bengal plate test. Recombinant antigen-based iELISA has given a successful outcome with the sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of 87.8%, 96.2%, 96.6%, and 78.78%, respectively. In conclusion, recombinant production and purification of the immunodominant Omp28 precursor protein has been achieved successfully in a one-step process with efficient yield and can be used for diagnosis of brucellosis in humans.

Is multifocal electroretinography an early predictor of glaucoma?

PURPOSE: To investigate the potential use of mfERG as an objective functional test that can express inner and outer retinal changes during the early stages of glaucoma. METHODS: One hundred and twenty-six eyes of 126 patients were included. There were 30 healthy (Group 1), 28 glaucoma suspect (Group 2), 48 early glaucoma (Group 3), and 20 advanced glaucoma cases (Group 4). After complete ophthalmic examination, Humphrey visual field analysis and mfERG were performed. These examinations were performed three times at 6-month intervals, and only the last examination results were used for the analysis. Visual fields global indices and mfERG implicit time and amplitudes were evaluated and analyzed by ring system (central 5°, 5°-10°, 10°-15° and >15°). One-way ANOVA and ROC curve analysis were used for statistical analysis. RESULTS: There was no statistically (one-way ANOVA) significant differences in patient age between groups (p = 0.126). For all rings, we detected statistically significant differences for the mean implicit time (latency) of the N1, P1, and N2 components between the advanced glaucoma and control subjects and between the advanced glaucoma and glaucoma suspects. The N2 amplitudes were significantly decreased in all rings in the advanced glaucoma patients when compared with control subjects. The N2 amplitude was significantly different between healthy subjects (Group 1) and early glaucoma subjects (Group 3) in the central 2° and 2°-5° rings. We used MedClac ROC curve analysis to identify the best parameters for discriminating between control subjects (Group 1) and early glaucoma patients (Group 3). The N2 implicit time for the central 2° ring (p < 0.0001), N2 amplitude for the central 2° ring (p = 0.0001), P1 implicit time for the 2°-5° ring (p = 0.0001), N2 implicit time for the 2°-5° ring (p = 0.0003), and N2 amplitude for the 2°-5° ring (p = 0.001) had ≥0.7 AUC values and were the best parameters in the ROC curve analyses that included the VFA parameters CONCLUSION: Alterations of amplitudes and implicit times of N2 response in the central area may be able to detect glaucoma earlier than VFA. In addition, with progression to advanced glaucoma these changes can be significant in all retinal areas. Although implicit times of all mfERG components are significantly delayed in glaucoma, both delayed implicit time and decreased amplitude of N2 wave in the central area are effective predictors in early glaucoma diagnosis.

Reduced SIRT1 expression correlates with enhanced oxidative stress in compensated and decompensated heart failure.

Sirtuin-1 (SIRT1) is a longevity factor in mammals initiating the cell survival mechanisms, and preventing ischemic injury in heart. In the etiopathogenesis of heart failure (HF), impairment in cardiomyocyte survival is a notable factor. Oxidative stress comprises a critical impact on cardiomyocyte lifespan in HF. The aim of the present study was to investigate SIRT1 expression in patients with compensated (cHF) and decompensated HF (dHF), and its correlation with oxidative stress. SIRT1 expression in peripheral leukocytes was examined using quantitative RT-PCR in 163 HF patients and 84 controls. Serum total oxidant status (TOS) and total antioxidant status (TAS) were measured via colorimetric assays, and oxidative stress index (OSI) was calculated. Lipid parameters were also determined by routine laboratory methods. SIRT1 mRNA expression was significantly downregulated in HF with more robust decrease in dHF (p=0.002, control vs cHF; p<0.001, control vs dHF). Markedly increased oxidative stress defined as elevated TOS, OSI and low TAS levels were detected in HF patients comparing with the controls (TAS; p=0.010, control vs cHF, p=0.045 control vs dHF, TOS; p=0.004 control vs cHF; p<0.001 control vs dHF, OSI; p<0.001 for both comparisons, respectively). With SIRT1 expression levels, TAS, TOS, OSI, and high density lipoprotein levels in cHF and dHF were determined correlated. SIRT1 expression were significantly reduced in both HF subtypes, particularly in dHF. SIRT1 expression was correlated with the oxidant levels and antioxidant capacity. Data suggest that SIRT1 may have a significant contribution in regulation of oxidant/antioxidant balance in HF etiology and compensation status.

Advanced glycation end products facilitate bacterial adherence in urinary tract infection in diabetic mice.

Diabetic individuals have increased susceptibility to urinary tract infection (UTI), a common, painful condition. During diabetes mellitus, non-enzymatic reactions between reducing sugars and protein amine groups result in excessive production of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) that accumulate in tissues. Since bacteria adhere to cell surfaces by binding to carbohydrates, we hypothesized that adherence of bacteria to the bladder in diabetics may be enhanced by accumulation of AGEs on urothelial surface proteins. Using a murine model of UTI, we observed increased adherence of type 1 fimbriated uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) to the bladder in streptozotocin-induced diabetic female mice compared with age-matched controls, along with increased concentrations of two common AGEs in superficial urothelial cells from diabetic bladders. Several lectins with different specificities exhibited increased binding to urothelial homogenates from diabetic mice compared with controls, and two of those lectins also bound to AGEs. Furthermore, mannose-binding type 1 fimbriae isolated from UPEC bound to different AGEs, and UPEC adherence to the bladder in diabetic mice, were inhibited by pretreatment of mice with the AGE inhibitor pyridoxamine. These results strongly suggest a role for urothelial AGE accumulation in increased bacterial adherence during UTI in diabetes.

Impaired cytokine expression, neutrophil infiltration and bacterial clearance in response to urinary tract infection in diabetic mice.

Diabetic patients have increased susceptibility to infections, and urinary tract infections (UTI) are the most common type in women with diabetes mellitus. Knowledge of bacterial clearance effectiveness following UTI in diabetics is sparse. In this study, the effects of diabetes on bacterial clearance efficiency and components of the innate immune system in response to UTI in a murine model were investigated. Streptozotocin-induced diabetic and control female C57BL/6J mice were infected with uropathogenic Escherichia coli, and bacterial load, expression of chemokines, and neutrophil infiltration in the bladder over time were investigated. Expression levels of histone deacetylases were also measured to address a potential mechanism underlying the phenotype. Bacterial clearance during UTI was significantly prolonged in diabetic mice relative to controls. Neutrophil infiltration in bladder tissue and urine, and both mRNA and protein expression of chemokines MIP-2, KC, MCP-1 and IL-6 in bladder tissue were diminished at early time points after infection in diabetic mice relative to controls. In addition, mRNA levels of histone deacetylases 1-5 were increased in diabetic mice. This is the first study to show an association of impaired bacterial clearance in diabetic mice with suppression of UTI-induced chemokine expression and neutrophil infiltration in the bladder.

Chronic pelvic allodynia is mediated by CCL2 through mast cells in an experimental autoimmune cystitis model.

The cause of chronic pelvic pain in interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome (IC/PBS) remains unclear; autoimmunity is a possible etiology. We have recently shown that injection of a single immunogenic peptide of uroplakin 3A (UPK3A 65-84) induces experimental autoimmune cystitis (EAC) in female BALB/cJ mice that is unique among experimental models in accurately reflecting both the urinary symptoms and pelvic pain of IC/PBS. The aim of this project was to identify the roles of mast cells and mast cell chemoattractant/activator monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 [chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2)] in the allodynia in this model. We immunized 6- to 8-wk-old female BALB/cJ mice with UPK3A 65-84 peptide and, 5-40 days later, observed increased responses to stimulation of the suprapubic abdominal and hindpaw surfaces with von Frey monofilaments compared with mice injected with adjuvant alone. Suprapubic and hindpaw tactile allodynia responses by EAC mice were blocked by instillation of lidocaine into the bladder but not by lidocaine in the uterus, confirming the bladder as the source of the hypersensitivity. Markedly increased numbers of activated mast cells and expression of CCL2 were found in the bladder after immunization with UPK3A 65-84. Hypersensitive responses were inhibited by mast cell stabilizer cromolyn sodium and antagonists of histamine receptors 1 and 2. Furthermore, BALB/cJ mice with deletion of the Ccl2 or chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 2 gene exhibited markedly reduced allodynia and accumulation of mast cells after UPK3A 65-84 immunization. These results show that UPK3A 65-84 immunization causes chronic visceral allodynia and suggest that it is mediated by CCL2-driven mast cell accumulation in the bladder.

Grillotia erinaceus (van Beneden, 1858) (Cestoda:Trypanorhyncha) from whiting in the Black Sea, with observations on seasonality and host-parasite interrelationship.

The genus Grillotia Guiart, 1927 is cosmopolitan in its distribution and the type-species, G. erinaceus (van Beneden, 1858), has been relatively well studied. However, this study provides infection indices of Grillotia erinaceus from southern and northern Black Sea whiting Merlangius merlangus for the first time. The specimens of Grillotia erinaceus were obtained from subserosa of the anterior oesophagus, stomach, pyloric caeca, liver, ovaries and mesenterium of whiting caught by commercial fishing vessels off Sinop, Turkey and off Balaklava, Ukraine. Fish were examined during the period from May 2011 to April 2012. Prevalence and mean intensity values in 268 fish collected off Sinop in the Black Sea were 18.66% and 1.82 ± 0.16 parasites per infected fish, respectively. In Ukrainian 166 whiting samples collected off Balaklava in the Black Sea, however, G. erinaceus plerocercus infection prevalence was 10.24% and mean intensity 1.71 ± 0.75 parasites per infected fish. Infection parameters were also determined at both sampling sites in relation with host length, sex and season.

Matrix metalloproteinase-2, tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase-2, and transforming growth factor beta 1 in the aqueous humor and serum of patients with pseudoexfoliation syndrome.

PURPOSE: The aim of the study reported in this article was to determine the presence and quantitative differences of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), its tissue inhibitor (TIMP-2) and transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-ß1) in the aqueous humor and serum samples of patients with pseudoexfoliation (PEX) syndrome. METHODS: Aqueous humor and serum samples were collected from 32 patients with PEX syndrome (with and without glaucoma) and a control group, who underwent routine cataract surgery. Levels of MMP-2, TIMP-2, and TGF-ß1 were determined by specific immunoassays (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay). RESULTS: MMP-2, TIMP-2, and TGF-ß1 were identified in aqueous humor and serum samples from all groups of patients. The aqueous and serum samples of MMP-2, TIMP-2, and TGF-ß1 showed no significant differences between PEX syndrome and control groups. Serum levels of MMP-2, TIMP-2, and TGF-ß1 were statistically greater than their aqueous levels (P<0.05), except for TIMP-2 levels in the control group. CONCLUSION: No statistically significant difference among mean MMP-2, TIMP-2, and TGF-ß1 levels in both aqueous humor and serum samples was found between patients with PEX syndrome and the control group. It is important to simultaneously evaluate serum and aqueous samples from patients with PEX syndrome, which is related to an impaired blood-aqueous barrier.

Stem cell homing factor, CCL7, expression in mouse models of stress urinary incontinence.

OBJECTIVES: Animal models of vaginal distention (VD) have demonstrated increased expression of chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 7 (CCL7) In this study, we investigated the expression of CCL7 in mice models of simulated birth trauma-induced urinary incontinence using VD and pudendal nerve transection (PNT). METHODS: Forty-nine mice were divided into 6 groups: VD, sham VD, PNT, sham PNT, anesthesia, and age-matched controls. The urethra, vagina, and rectum were harvested for the expression of CCL7 immediately or 24 hours after assigned procedure. Venous sampling for quantification of serum CCL7 was also performed. An analysis of variance model was used to compare the relative expression of CCL7 in each group. RESULTS: Urethral CCL7 expression in the VD group was significantly higher than control group after 24 hours (P < 0.01). There was no difference in the urethral CCL7 expression in PNT, sham PNT, sham VD, or anesthesia groups compared with the controls. No statistically significant difference was noted in the vaginal and rectal expression of CCL7 between any of the groups except for sham PNT. Statistically significant differences were noted in the serum CCL7 expression in the VD, PNT, and sham PNT (P < 0.01 in all) groups after 24 hours compared with the control group. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates overexpression of urethral CCL7 after VD but not PNT. This suggests that nerve injury does not contribute to the CCL7 overexpression. The overexpression of CCL7 in the serum of mice after VD suggests a translational potential where CCL7 measurement could be used as a surrogate for injury after delivery.