Validation of KIR3DL1 alleles assigned by next generation sequencing.

We describe the novel KIR3DL1*182 allele and confirmed the 3DL1*15002 allele.

Validation of tag SNPs for multiple sclerosis HLA risk alleles across the 1000 genomes panel.

Currently, the genetic variants strongly associated with risk for Multiple Sclerosis (MS) are located in the Major Histocompatibility Complex. This includes DRB1*15:01 and DRB1*15:03 alleles at the HLA-DRB1 locus, the latter restricted to African populations; the DQB1*06:02 allele at the HLA-DQB1 locus which is in high linkage disequilibrium (LD) with DRB1*15:01; and protective allele A*02:01 at the HLA-A locus. HLA allele identification is facilitated by co-inherited ('tag') single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs); however, SNP validation is not typically done outside of the discovery population. We examined 19 SNPs reported to be in high LD with these alleles in 2,502 healthy subjects included in the 1000 Genomes panel having typed HLA data. Examination of 3 indices (LD R2 values, sensitivity and specificity, minor allele frequency) revealed few SNPs with high tagging performance. All SNPs examined that tag DRB1*15:01 were in perfect LD in the British population; three showed high tagging performance in 4 of the 5 European, and 2 of the 4 American populations. For DQB1*06:02, with no previously validated tag SNPs, we show that rs3135388 has high tagging performance in one South Asian, one American, and one European population. We identify for the first time that rs2844821 has high tagging performance for A*02:01 in 5 of 7 African populations including African Americans, and 4 of the 5 European populations. These results provide a basis for selecting SNPs with high tagging performance to assess HLA alleles across diverse populations, for MS risk as well as for other diseases and conditions.

Integration of the immune memory into the pathogen-driven MHC polymorphism hypothesis.

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes (referred to as human leukocyte antigen or HLA in humans) are a key component of vertebrate immune systems, coding for proteins which present antigens to T-cells. These genes are outstanding in their degree of polymorphism, with important consequences for human and animal health. The polymorphism is thought to arise from selection pressures imposed by pathogens on MHC allomorphs, which differ in their antigen-binding capacity. However, the existing theory has not considered MHC selection in relation to the formation of immune memory. In this paper, we argue that this omission limits our understanding of the evolution of MHC polymorphism and its role in disease. We review recent evidence that has emerged from the massive research effort related to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemics, and which provides new evidence for the role of MHC in shaping immune memory. We then discuss why the inclusion of immune memory within the existing theory may have non-trivial consequence for our understanding of the evolution of MHC polymorphism. Finally, we will argue that neglecting immune memory hinders our interpretation of empirical findings, and postulate that future studies focusing on pathogen-driven MHC selection would benefit from stratifying the available data according to the history of infection (and vaccination, if relevant).

HLA-F and LILRB1 Genetic Polymorphisms Associated with Alloimmunisation in Sickle Cell Disease.

Red blood cell (RBC) transfusion remains a critical component in caring for the acute and chronic complications of sickle cell disease (SCD). Patient alloimmunisation is the main limitation of transfusion, which can worsen anaemia and lead to delayed haemolytic transfusion reaction or transfusion deadlock. Although biological risk factors have been identified for immunisation, patient alloimmunisation remains difficult to predict. We aimed to characterise genetic alloimmunisation factors to optimise the management of blood products compatible with extended antigen matching to ensure the self-sufficiency of labile blood products. Considering alloimmunisation in other clinical settings, like pregnancy and transplantation, many studies have shown that HLA Ib molecules (HLA-G, -E, and -F) are involved in tolerance mechanism; these molecules are ligands of immune effector cell receptors (LILRB1, LILRB2, and KIR3DS1). Genetic polymorphisms of these ligands and receptors have been linked to their expression levels and their influence on inflammatory and immune response modulation. Our hypothesis was that polymorphisms of HLA Ib genes and of their receptors are associated with alloimmunisation susceptibility in SCD patients. The alloimmunisation profile of thirty-seven adult SCD patients was analysed according to these genetic polymorphisms and transfusion history. Our results suggest that the alloimmunisation of SCD patients is linked to both HLA-F and LILRB1 genetic polymorphisms located in their regulatory region and associated with their protein expression level.

HLA-F transcriptional and protein differential expression according to its genetic polymorphisms.

Many specificities single out HLA-F: its structure, expression regulation at cell membrane and function. HLA-F mRNA is detected in the most cell types and the protein is localized in the ER and Golgi apparatus. When expressed at cell surface, HLA-F may be associated to ß2-microglobulin and peptide or expressed as an open-conformer molecule. HLA-F reaches the membrane upon activation of different primary cell types and cell-lines. HLA-F has its highest affinity for the KIR3DS1-activating NK receptor, but also binds inhibitory immune receptors. Some studies reported that HLA-F expression is associated with its genotype. Higher HLA-F mRNA expression associated with F*01:01:02, and 3 noncoding SNPs, rs1362126, rs2523405, and rs2523393, located in HLA-F-AS1 or upstream the HLA-F sequence were associated with HLA-F mRNA expression. Given the implication of HLA-F in many clinical setting, and the undisclosed process of its expression regulation, we aim to confirm the effect of the aforementioned SNPs with HLA-F transcriptional and protein expression. We analyzed the distribution, frequency and linkage disequilibrium of these SNPs at worldwide scale in the 1000 Genomes Project samples. Influence on the genotype of each SNP on HLA-F expression was explored using RNAseq data from the 1000 Genomes Project, and using Q-PCR and intracellular cytometry in PBMC from healthy individuals. Our results show that the SNPs under studied displayed remarkably different allelic proportion according to geography and confirm that rs1362126, rs2523405, and rs2523393 displayed the most concordant results, with the highest effect size and a double-dose effect.

Mobilisation of HLA-F on the surface of bronchial epithelial cells and platelets in asthmatic patients.

Uncontrolled inflammation of the airways in chronic obstructive lung diseases leads to exacerbation, accelerated lung dysfunction and respiratory insufficiency. Among these diseases, asthma affects 358 million people worldwide. Human bronchial epithelium cells (HBEC) express both anti-inflammatory and activating molecules, and their deregulated expression contribute to immune cell recruitment and activation, especially platelets (PLT) particularly involved in lung tissue inflammation in asthma context. Previous results supported that HLA-G dysregulation in lung tissue is associated with immune cell activation. We investigated here HLA-F expression, reported to be mobilised on immune cell surface upon activation and displaying its highest affinity for the KIR3DS1-activating NK receptor. We explored HLA-F transcriptional expression in HBEC; HLA-F total expression in PBMC and HBEC collected from healthy individuals at rest and upon chemical activation and HLA-F membrane expression in PBMC, HBEC and PLT collected from healthy individuals at rest and upon chemical activation. We compared HLA-F transcriptional expression in HBEC from healthy individuals and asthmatic patients and its surface expression in HBEC and PLT from healthy individuals and asthmatic patients. Our results support that HLA-F is expressed by HBEC and PLT under healthy physiological conditions and is retained in cytoplasm, barely expressed on the surface, as previously reported in immune cells. In both cell types, HLA-F reaches the surface in the inflammatory asthma context whereas no effect is observed at the transcriptional level. Our study suggests that HLA-F surface expression is a ubiquitous post-transcriptional process in activated cells. It may be of therapeutic interest in controlling lung inflammation.

COVID-19 Pandemic: Escape of Pathogenic Variants and MHC Evolution.

We propose a new hypothesis that explains the maintenance and evolution of MHC polymorphism. It is based on two phenomena: the constitution of the repertoire of naive T lymphocytes and the evolution of the pathogen and its impact on the immune memory of T lymphocytes. Concerning the latter, pathogen evolution will have a different impact on reinfection depending on the MHC allomorph. If a mutation occurs in a given region, in the case of MHC allotypes, which do not recognize the peptide in this region, the mutation will have no impact on the memory repertoire. In the case where the MHC allomorph binds to the ancestral peptides and not to the mutated peptide, that individual will have a higher chance of being reinfected. This difference in fitness will lead to a variation of the allele frequency in the next generation. Data from the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic already support a significant part of this hypothesis and following up on these data may enable it to be confirmed. This hypothesis could explain why some individuals after vaccination respond less well than others to variants and leads to predict the probability of reinfection after a first infection depending upon the variant and the HLA allomorph.

HLA-H*02:07 Is a Membrane-Bound Ligand of Denisovan Origin That Protects against Lysis by Activated Immune Effectors.

The biological relevance of genes initially categorized as "pseudogenes" is slowly emerging, notably in innate immunity. In the HLA region on chromosome 6, HLA-H is one such pseudogene; yet, it is transcribed, and its variation is associated with immune properties. Furthermore, two HLA-H alleles, H*02:07 and H*02:14, putatively encode a complete, membrane-bound HLA protein. Here we thus hypothesized that HLA-H contributes to immune homeostasis similarly to tolerogenic molecules HLA-G, -E, and -F. We tested if HLA-H*02:07 encodes a membrane-bound protein that can inhibit the cytotoxicity of effector cells. We used an HLA-null human erythroblast cell line transduced with HLA-H*02:07 cDNA to demonstrate that HLA-H*02:07 encodes a membrane-bound protein. Additionally, using a cytotoxicity assay, our results support that K562 HLA-H*02:07 inhibits human effector IL-2-activated PBMCs and human IL-2-independent NK92-MI cell line activity. Finally, through in silico genotyping of the Denisovan genome and haplotypic association with Denisovan-derived HLA-A*11, we also show that H*02:07 is of archaic origin. Hence, admixture with archaic humans brought a functional HLA-H allele into modern European and Asian populations.

Search for MHC/TCR-Like Systems in Living Organisms.

Highly polymorphic loci evolved many times over the history of species. These polymorphic loci are involved in three types of functions: kind recognition, self-incompatibility, and the jawed vertebrate adaptive immune system (AIS). In the first part of this perspective, we reanalyzed and described some cases of polymorphic loci reported in the literature. There is a convergent evolution within each functional category and between functional categories, suggesting that the emergence of these self/non-self recognition loci has occurred multiple times throughout the evolutionary history. Most of the highly polymorphic loci are coding for proteins that have a homophilic interaction or heterophilic interaction between linked loci, leading to self or non-self-recognition. The highly polymorphic MHCs, which are involved in the AIS have a different functional mechanism, as they interact through presented self or non-self-peptides with T cell receptors, whose diversity is generated by somatic recombination. Here we propose a mechanism called "the capacity of recognition competition mechanism" that might contribute to the evolution of MHC polymorphism. We propose that the published cases corresponding to these three biological categories represent a small part of what can be found throughout the tree of life, and that similar mechanisms will be found many times, including the one where polymorphic loci interact with somatically generated loci.

Validation of new HLA-J alleles assigned by next generation sequencing.

We describe nine novel HLA-J alleles validated by in silico and experimental data.

Self-Peptidome Variation Shapes Individual Immune Responses.

The relationship between human genetic variation and disease has not been fully elucidated. According to the present view on infectious diseases pathogen resistance is linked to human leukocyte antigen (HLA) class I/II variants and their individual capacity to present pathogen-derived peptides. Yet, T cell education in the thymus occurs through negative and positive selection, and both processes are controlled by a combination of HLA class I/II variants and peptides from the self. Therefore, the capacity of given HLA class I/II variants to bind pathogen-derived peptides is only one part of the selective process to generate effective immune responses. We thus propose that peptidome variation contributes to shaping T cell receptor (TCR) repertoires and hence individual immune responses, and that this variation represents inherent modulator epitopes.

Identification of 11 novel HLA-A, -B, -C, -DRB1, and -DQB1 alleles in the 1000 Genomes Project panel.

We isolated 11 novel HLA alleles in the 1000 Genomes Project using PolyPheMe software.

Blood group typing from whole-genome sequencing data.

Many questions can be explored thanks to whole-genome data. The aim of this study was to overcome their main limits, software availability and database accuracy, and estimate the feasibility of red blood cell (RBC) antigen typing from whole-genome sequencing (WGS) data. We analyzed whole-genome data from 79 individuals for HLA-DRB1 and 9 RBC antigens. Whole-genome sequencing data was analyzed with software allowing phasing of variable positions to define alleles or haplotypes and validated for HLA typing from next-generation sequencing data. A dedicated database was set up with 1648 variable positions analyzed in KEL (KEL), ACKR1 (FY), SLC14A1 (JK), ACHE (YT), ART4 (DO), AQP1 (CO), CD44 (IN), SLC4A1 (DI) and ICAM4 (LW). Whole-genome sequencing typing was compared to that previously obtained by amplicon-based monoallelic sequencing and by SNaPshot analysis. Whole-genome sequencing data were also explored for other alleles. Our results showed 93% of concordance for blood group polymorphisms and 91% for HLA-DRB1. Incorrect typing and unresolved results confirm that WGS should be considered reliable with read depths strictly above 15x. Our results supported that RBC antigen typing from WGS is feasible but requires improvements in read depth for SNV polymorphisms typing accuracy. We also showed the potential for WGS in screening donors with rare blood antigens, such as weak JK alleles. The development of WGS analysis in immunogenetics laboratories would offer personalized care in the management of RBC disorders.

Origins of the RAG Transposome and the MHC.

How innate immunity gave rise to adaptive immunity in vertebrates remains unknown. We propose an evolutionary scenario beginning with pathogen-associated molecular pattern(s) (PAMPs) being presented by molecule(s) on one cell to specific receptor(s) on other cells, much like MHC molecules and T cell receptors (TCRs). In this model, mutations in MHC-like molecule(s) that bound new PAMP(s) would not be recognized by original TCR-like molecule(s), and new MHC-like gene(s) would be lost by neutral drift. Integrating recombination activating gene (RAG) transposon(s) in a TCR-like gene would result in greater recognition diversity, with new MHC-like variants recognized and selected, along with a new RAG/TCR-like system. MHC genes would be selected to present many peptides, through multigene families, allelic polymorphism, and peptide-binding promiscuity.

Complete genetic sequence of 15 novel HLA-H alleles.

We describe the full gene sequences of 15 HLA-H alleles.

HLAIb worldwide genetic diversity: New HLA-H alleles and haplotype structure description.

The classical HLA class I genes (HLA Ia) were extensively studied because of their implication in clinical fields and anthropology. Less is known about worldwide genetic diversity and linkage disequilibrium for non-classical HLA class I genes (HLA Ib) and HLA pseudogenes. Notably, HLA-H, which is deleted in a fraction of the population, remains scarcely explored. The aims of this study were 1/ to get further insight into HLA-H genetic diversity and into how this variability potentially affects its expression and 2/ to define HLA Ib worldwide allelic diversity and linkage. Exome sequence data from the 1000 Genomes Project were used to define second field HLA-A, -E, -F, -G and -H typing using PolyPheMe software. Allelic and two-loci haplotype frequencies were estimated using Gene[Rate] software both at worldwide and continental levels. Eleven novel HLA-H alleles identified in exome data were validated by NGS performed on 25 genomic DNA samples from the same cohort. Phylogenetic analysis and frequency distribution of HLA-H alleles revealed three clades, each predominantly represented in Admixed American, European and East Asian populations, African populations and South Asian populations. Among these eleven novel alleles, two potentially encode complete transmembrane HLA proteins. We confirm the high LD between HLA-H and -A, and between HLA-H and -G, and show the three genes have distinct worldwide allelic distribution. Conversely, HLA-E and HLA-F both showed little LD, displayed restricted allelic diversity and practically no difference in their distribution across the planet. Our work thus reveals an unexpectedly high HLA-H genetic diversity, with alleles highly represented in Asia possibly encoding a functional HLA protein. Functional implication of these results remains to be explored, both in physiological and pathological contexts.

HLA-H: Transcriptional Activity and HLA-E Mobilization.

Little attention is paid to pseudogenes from the highly polymorphic HLA genetic region. The pseudogene HLA-H is defined as a non-functional gene because it is deleted at different frequencies in humans and because it encodes a potentially non-functional truncated protein. However, different studies have shown HLA-H transcriptional activity. We formerly identified 13 novel HLA-H alleles, including the H*02:07 allele, which reaches 19.6% in East Asian populations and encodes a full-length HLA protein. The aims of this study were to explore the expression and possible function of the HLA-H molecule. HLA-H may act as a transmembrane molecule and/or indirectly via its signal peptide by mobilizing HLA-E to the cell surface. We analyzed HLA-H RNA expression in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells (PBMC), Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells (HBEC), and available RNA sequencing data from lymphoblastoid cell lines, and we looked to see whether HLA-E was mobilized at the cell surface by the HLA-H signal peptide. Our data confirmed that HLA-H is transcribed at similar levels to HLA-G. We characterized a hemizygous effect in HLA-H expression, and expression differed according to HLA-H alleles; most interestingly, the HLA-H*02:07 allele had the highest level of mRNA expression. We showed that HLA-H signal peptide incubation mobilized HLA-E molecules at the cell surface of T-Lymphocytes, monocytes, B-Lymphocytes, and primary epithelial cells. Our results suggest that HLA-H may be functional but raises many biological issues that need to be addressed.

Maternal HLA-G*01:01:01:04 protects from anti-HLA-class II immunization in pregnant women.

Factors determining anti-HLA immunization are poorly understood, although anti-HLA immunization following pregnancy is well described. The HLA-G molecule has been extensively described for its implication in immunological tolerance, especially during pregnancy. Transplant studies show an association between HLA-G haplotypes and alloimmunization. Our aim was to investigate the association of HLA-G haplotypes with anti-HLA class I and II immunization in a cohort of women having experienced one or more pregnancies and with no transfusion history. Maternal blood samples (n=270) collected at delivery and formerly screened for anti-HLA antibodies, HLA-A and HLA-B antigens, were screened by NGS for HLA-G gene polymorphism. Univariate analysis further confirmed that the number of pregnancies was significantly associated with anti-HLA class I immunization, whereas no other variable remained significant after Bonferroni correction. Our results showed however that anti-HLA class II immunization was associated with the number of children whereas the HLA-G*01:01:01:04 allele was protective against this immunization.

Immune diversity sheds light on missing variation in worldwide genetic diversity panels.

Defining worldwide human genetic variation is a critical step to reveal how genome plasticity contributes to disease. Yet, there is currently no metric to assess the representativeness and completeness of current and widely used data on genetic variation. We show here that Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) genes can serve as such metric as they are both the most polymorphic and the most studied genetic system. As a test case, we investigated the 1,000 Genomes Project panel. Using high-accuracy in silico HLA typing, we find that over 20% of the common HLA variants and over 70% of the rare HLA variants are missing in this reference panel for worldwide genetic variation, due to undersampling and incomplete geographical coverage, in particular in Oceania and West Asia. Because common and rare variants both contribute to disease, this study thus illustrates how HLA diversity can detect and help fix incomplete sampling and hence accelerate efforts to draw a comprehensive overview of the genetic variation that is relevant to health and disease.