Synergistic Interaction between Polysaccharide-Based Extracellular Matrix and Mineralized Osteoblast-Derived EVs Promotes Bone Regeneration via miRNA-mRNA Regulatory Axis.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from bone progenitor cells are advantageous as cell-free and non-immunogenic cargo delivery vehicles. In this study, EVs are isolated from MC3T3-E1 cells before (GM-EVs) and after mineralization for 7 and 14 days (DM-EVs). It was observed that DM-EVs accelerate the process of differentiation in recipient cells more prominently. The small RNA sequencing of EVs revealed that miR-204-5p, miR-221-3p, and miR-148a-3p are among the highly upregulated miRNAs that have an inhibitory effect on the function of mRNAs, Sox11, Timp3, and Ccna2 in host cells, which is probably responsible for enhancing the activity of osteoblastic genes. To enhance the bioavailability of EVs, they are encapsulated in a chitosan-collagen composite hydrogel that serves as a bioresorbable extracellular matrix (ECM). The EVs-integrated scaffold (DM-EVs + Scaffold) enhances bone regeneration in critical-sized calvarial bone defects in rats within 8 weeks of implantation by providing the ECM cues. The shelf life of DM-EVs + Scaffold indicates that the bioactivity of EVs and their cargo in the polymer matrix remains intact for up to 30 days. Integrating mineralized cell-derived EVs into an ECM represents a bioresorbable matrix with a cell-free method for promoting new bone formation through the miRNA-mRNA regulatory axis.

Subcellular localization of circular RNAs: Where and why.

Localization of RNAs at specific subcellular locations regulating various local cellular events has gained much attention recently. Like most other classes of RNAs, the function of newly discovered circular RNAs (circRNAs) is predominantly determined by their association with different cellular factors in the cell. CircRNAs function as transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulators of gene expression by interacting with transcription factors, splicing regulators, RNA-binding proteins, and microRNAs or by translating into functional polypeptides. Hence, studying their subcellular localization to assess their function is essential. The discovery of more than a million circRNA and increasing evidence of their involvement in development and diseases require a thorough analysis of their subcellular localization linking to their biological functions. Here, we summarize current knowledge of circRNA localization in cells and extracellular vesicles, factors regulating their subcellular localization, and the implications of circRNA localization on their cellular functions. Given the discovery of many circRNAs in all life forms and their implications in pathophysiology, we discuss the challenges in studying circRNA localization and the opportunities for unlocking the mystery of circRNA functions.

Global identification of mRNA-interacting circular RNAs by CLiPPR-Seq.

Although the functional role of circular RNA (circRNA) interaction with microRNAs and proteins has been studied extensively, circRNA interactions with the protein-coding mRNAs in intact cells remain largely unknown. Here, by employing AMT-mediated proximity ligation of RNA-RNA duplexes followed by circRNA enrichment and deep sequencing, we report a novel Cross-Linking Poly(A) Pulldown RNase R Sequencing (CLiPPR-seq) technology which identified hundreds of mRNA-interacting circRNAs in three different cell types, including ßTC6, C2C12 and HeLa cells. Furthermore, CLiPP-seq without RNase R treatment was also performed to identify the mRNA expression in these cells. BLAST analysis of circRNAs in CLiPPR-seq sample with the mRNAs in CLiPP-seq samples determined their potential complementary sequences for circRNA-mRNA interaction. Pulldown of circRNAs and poly(A) RNAs confirmed the direct interaction of circRNAs with target mRNAs. Silencing of mRNA-interacting circRNAs led to the altered expression of target mRNAs in ßTC6 cells, suggesting the role of direct interaction of circRNAs with mRNAs in gene expression regulation. CLiPPR-seq thus represents a novel method for illuminating the myriad of uncharacterized circRNA-mRNA hybrids that may regulate gene expression.

Sanger Sequencing to Determine the Full-Length Sequence of Circular RNAs.

The pre-existing theory of pre-mRNA splicing into linear mature RNA was questioned with the introduction of circular RNAs (circRNAs). Hundreds of studies using high throughput RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) techniques and novel computational programs reported the abundant and ubiquitous expression of circRNAs originating by pre-mRNA backsplicing. CircRNAs are mostly involved in gene expression by regulating functions of interacting microRNAs (miRNAs) and RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) or translating into functional polypeptides. Although all circRNA annotation tools identify circRNAs based on the backsplice junction (BSJ) sequences, only a few identify the internal sequences of circRNAs. However, the full-length sequence of circRNAs from RNA-seq data could be error-prone due to its similarity with the counterpart linear RNA. Since circRNA function depends on the mature sequence, validation of the mature sequence is the prerequisite for their further characterization. In this chapter, we discuss the validation of circRNA BSJ sequence by RT-PCR using divergent primer followed by Sanger sequencing. Furthermore, we describe the circRNA-rolling circle amplification (circRNA-RCA; circRNA enrichment by RNase R treatment, full-length cDNA synthesis, rolling circle PCR amplification using full-length primers, and Sanger sequencing of the PCR product) to validate the mature splice sequence of circRNAs. This chapter highlights the basic guidelines for designing divergent and full-length primers for PCR amplification and Sanger sequencing to validate circRNA sequences.

Regulation of microRNA by circular RNA.

Circular (circ)RNAs have emerged as novel regulators of gene expression through various mechanisms. However, most publications focus on functional circRNAs regulating target gene expression by interacting with micro (mi)RNAs and acting as competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs). Although the theory of miRNA sponging by ceRNAs suggests the inhibition of miRNA activity, many studies are biased toward the selection of miRNAs showing a reverse expression pattern compared with circRNA expression. Although several computational tools and molecular assays have been used to predict and validate the interaction of miRNAs with circRNAs, the actual validation of functional in vivo interactions needs careful consideration of molecular experiments with specific controls. As extensive research is being performed on circRNA, many questions arise on the functional significance of circRNA-miRNA interactions. We hope the critical discussion on the criteria for selecting circRNA-miRNA pairs for functional analysis and providing standard methods for validating circRNA-miRNA interactions will advance our understanding of circRNAs as novel gene regulators. This article is categorized under: Regulatory RNAs/RNAi/Riboswitches > Regulatory RNAs Translation > Regulation RNA Methods > RNA Analyses in Cells.

Identification of potential proteins translated from circular RNA splice variants.

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are covalently closed RNA molecules generated from precursor RNAs by the head-to-tail backsplicing of exons. Hundreds of studies demonstrated that circRNAs are ubiquitously expressed and regulate cellular events by modulating microRNA (miRNA) and RNA-binding protein (RBP) activities. A few circRNAs are also known to translate into functional polypeptides regulating cellular physiology. All these functions primarily depend on the full-length sequence of the circRNAs. CircRNA backsplice junction sequence is the key to identifying circRNAs and their full-length mature sequence. However, some multi-exonic circRNAs exist in different isoforms sharing identical backsplice junction sequences and are termed circRNA splice variants. Here, we analyzed the previously published HeLa cell RNA-seq datasets to identify circRNA splice variants using the de novo module of the CIRCexplorer2 circRNA annotation pipeline. A subset of circRNAs with splice variants was validated by the circRNA-rolling circle amplification (circRNA-RCA) method. Interestingly, several validated circRNAs were predicted to translate into proteins by the riboCIRC database. Furthermore, polyribosome fractionation followed by quantitative PCR confirmed the association of a subset of circRNAs with polyribosome supporting their protein-coding potential. Finally, bioinformatics analysis of proteins derived from splice variants of circCORO1C and circASPH suggested altered protein sequences and structures that could affect their physiological functions. Together, our study identified novel circRNA splice variants and their potential translation into protein isoforms which may regulate various physiological processes.

Quantification of Circular RNAs Using Digital Droplet PCR.

Digital droplet polymerase chain reaction (dd-PCR) is one of the most sensitive quantification methods; it fractionates the reaction into nearly 20,000 water-in-oil droplets, and the PCR occurs in the individual droplets. The dd-PCR has several advantages over conventional real-time qPCR, including increased accuracy in detecting low-abundance targets, omitting reference genes for quantification, eliminating technical replicates for samples, and showing high resilience to inhibitors in the samples. Recently, dd-PCR has become one of the most popular methods for accurately quantifying target DNA or RNA for gene expression analysis and diagnostics. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a large family of recently discovered covalently closed RNA molecules lacking 5' and 3' ends. They have been shown to regulate gene expression by acting as sponges for RNA-binding proteins and microRNAs. Furthermore, circRNAs are secreted into body fluids, and their resistance to exonucleases makes them serve as biomarkers for disease diagnosis. This article aims to show how to perform divergent primer design, RNA extraction, cDNA synthesis, and dd-PCR analysis to accurately quantify specific circular RNA (circRNA) levels in cells. In conclusion, we demonstrate the precise quantification of circRNAs using dd-PCR.

Detecting RNA-RNA interactome.

The last decade has seen a robust increase in various types of novel RNA molecules and their complexity in gene regulation. RNA molecules play a critical role in cellular events by interacting with other biomolecules, including protein, DNA, and RNA. It has been established that RNA-RNA interactions play a critical role in several biological processes by regulating the biogenesis and function of RNA molecules. Interestingly, RNA-RNA interactions regulate the biogenesis of diverse RNA molecules, including mRNAs, microRNAs, tRNAs, and circRNAs, through splicing or backsplicing. Structured RNAs like rRNA, tRNA, and snRNAs achieve their functional conformation by intramolecular RNA-RNA interactions. In addition, functional consequences of many intermolecular RNA-RNA interactions have been extensively studied in the regulation of gene expression. Hence, it is essential to understand the mechanism and functions of RNA-RNA interactions in eukaryotes. Conventionally, RNA-RNA interactions have been identified through diverse biochemical methods for decades. The advent of high-throughput RNA-sequencing technologies has revolutionized the identification of global RNA-RNA interactome in cells and their importance in RNA structure and function in gene expression regulation. Although these technologies revealed tens of thousands of intramolecular and intermolecular RNA-RNA interactions, we further look forward to future unbiased and quantitative high-throughput technologies for detecting transcriptome-wide RNA-RNA interactions. With the ability to detect RNA-RNA interactome, we expect that future studies will reveal the higher-order structures of RNA molecules and multi-RNA hybrids impacting human health and diseases. This article is categorized under: RNA Methods > RNA Analyses In Vitro and In Silico RNA Structure and Dynamics > Influence of RNA Structure in Biological Systems.

Validation of Circular RNAs by PCR.

High-throughput RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) technologies combined with novel bioinformatic algorithms discovered a large class of covalently closed single-stranded RNA molecules called circular RNAs (circRNAs ). Although RNA-seq has identified more than a million circRNAs, only a handful of them is validated with other techniques, including northern blotting, gel-trap electrophoresis, exonuclease treatment assays, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Reverse transcription (RT) of total RNA followed by PCR amplification is the most widely used technique for validating circRNAs identified in RNA-seq. RT-PCR is a highly reproducible, sensitive, and quantitative method for the detection and quantitation of circRNAs. This chapter details the basic guidelines for designing suitable primers for PCR amplification and validation of circRNAs .

Identification of Potential circRNA-microRNA-mRNA Regulatory Network in Skeletal Muscle.

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a newly discovered family of regulatory RNAs generated through backsplicing. Genome-wide profiling of circRNAs found that circRNAs are ubiquitously expressed and regulate gene expression by acting as a sponge for RNA-binding proteins (RBPs) and microRNAs (miRNAs). To identify circRNAs expressed in mouse skeletal muscle, we performed high-throughput RNA-sequencing of circRNA-enriched gastrocnemius muscle RNA samples, which identified more than 1,200 circRNAs. In addition, we have identified more than 14,000 and 15,000 circRNAs in aging human skeletal muscle tissue and satellite cells, respectively. A subset of abundant circRNAs was analyzed by RT-PCR, Sanger sequencing, and RNase R digestion assays to validate their expression in mouse skeletal muscle tissues. Analysis of the circRNA-miRNA-mRNA regulatory network revealed that conserved circNfix might associate with miR-204-5p, a suppressor of myocyte enhancer factor 2c (Mef2c) expression. To support the hypothesis that circNfix might regulate myogenesis by controlling Mef2c expression, silencing circNfix moderately reduced Mef2c mRNA expression and inhibited C2C12 differentiation. We propose that circNfix promotes MEF2C expression during muscle cell differentiation in part by acting as a sponge for miR-204-5p.

Antisense Oligo Pulldown of Circular RNA for Downstream Analysis.

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a large family of noncoding RNA molecules that have emerged as novel regulators of gene expression by sequestering microRNAs (miRNAs) and RNA-binding proteins (RBPs). Several computational tools have been developed to predict circRNA interaction with target miRNAs and RBPs with a view to studying their potential effect on downstream target genes and cellular physiology. Biochemical assays, including reporter assays, AGO2 pulldown, ribonucleoprotein pulldown, and biotin-labeled RNA pulldown, are used to capture the association of miRNAs and RBPs with circRNAs. Only a few studies have used circRNA pulldown assays to capture the associated miRNAs and RBPs under physiological conditions. In this detailed protocol, the circRNA of interest (e.g., circHipk2) was captured using a biotin-labeled antisense oligo (ASO) targeting the circHipk2 backsplice junction sequence followed by pulldown with streptavidin-conjugated magnetic beads. The specific enrichment of circRNA was analyzed using reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). Furthermore, the ASO pulldown assay can be coupled to miRNA RT-qPCR and western blotting analysis to confirm the association of miRNAs and RBPs predicted to interact with the target circRNA. In summary, the specific pulldown of circRNA using this quick and easy method makes it a useful tool for identifying and validating circRNA interaction with specific miRNAs and RBPs.

Cancer-Associated circRNA-miRNA-mRNA Regulatory Networks: A Meta-Analysis.

Recent advances in sequencing technologies and the discovery of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have provided new insights in the molecular pathogenesis of cancers. Several studies have implicated the role of ncRNAs, including microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and recently discovered circular RNAs (circRNAs) in tumorigenesis and metastasis. Unlike linear RNAs, circRNAs are highly stable and closed-loop RNA molecules. It has been established that circRNAs regulate gene expression by controlling the functions of miRNAs and RNA-binding protein (RBP) or by translating into proteins. The circRNA-miRNA-mRNA regulatory axis is associated with human diseases, such as cancers, Alzheimer's disease, and diabetes. In this study, we explored the interaction among circRNAs, miRNAs, and their target genes in various cancers using state-of-the-art bioinformatics tools. We identified differentially expressed circRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs on multiple cancers from publicly available data. Furthermore, we identified many crucial drivers and tumor suppressor genes in the circRNA-miRNA-mRNA regulatory axis in various cancers. Together, this study data provide a deeper understanding of the circRNA-miRNA-mRNA regulatory mechanisms in cancers.

Identification and Characterization of Circular Intronic RNAs Derived from Insulin Gene.

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a large family of noncoding RNAs that have emerged as novel regulators of gene expression. However, little is known about the function of circRNAs in pancreatic ß-cells. Here, transcriptomic analysis of mice pancreatic islet RNA-sequencing data identified 77 differentially expressed circRNAs between mice fed with a normal diet and a high-fat diet. Surprisingly, multiple circRNAs were derived from the intron 2 of the preproinsulin 2 (Ins2) gene and are termed as circular intronic (ci)-Ins2. The expression of ci-Ins2 transcripts in mouse pancreatic islets, and ßTC6 cells were confirmed by reverse transcription PCR, DNA sequencing, and RNase R treatment experiments. The level of ci-Ins2 was altered in ßTC6 cells upon exposure to elevated levels of palmitate and glucose. Computational analysis predicted the interaction of several RNA-binding proteins with ci-Ins2 and their flanking region, suggesting their role in the ci-Ins2 function or biogenesis. Additionally, bioinformatics analysis predicted the association of several microRNAs with ci-Ins2. Gene ontology and pathway analysis of genes targeted by miRNAs associated with ci-Ins2 suggested the regulation of several key biological processes. Together, our findings indicate that differential expression of circRNAs, especially ci-Ins2 transcripts, may regulate ß-cell function and may play a critical role in the development of diabetes.

circSamd4 represses myogenic transcriptional activity of PUR proteins.

By interacting with proteins and nucleic acids, the vast family of mammalian circRNAs is proposed to influence many biological processes. Here, RNA sequencing analysis of circRNAs differentially expressed during myogenesis revealed that circSamd4 expression increased robustly in mouse C2C12 myoblasts differentiating into myotubes. Moreover, silencing circSamd4, which is conserved between human and mouse, delayed myogenesis and lowered the expression of myogenic markers in cultured myoblasts from both species. Affinity pulldown followed by mass spectrometry revealed that circSamd4 associated with PURA and PURB, two repressors of myogenesis that inhibit transcription of the myosin heavy chain (MHC) protein family. Supporting the hypothesis that circSamd4 might complex with PUR proteins and thereby prevent their interaction with DNA, silencing circSamd4 enhanced the association of PUR proteins with the Mhc promoter, while overexpressing circSamd4 interfered with the binding of PUR proteins to the Mhc promoter. These effects were abrogated when using a mutant circSamd4 lacking the PUR binding site. Our results indicate that the association of PUR proteins with circSamd4 enhances myogenesis by contributing to the derepression of MHC transcription.

Circular RNAs in myogenesis.

Skeletal muscles have an immense ability to regenerate from the muscle stem cells called satellite cells. The process of skeletal muscle regeneration is called myogenesis, which starts with activation of quiescent satellite cells immediately after muscle injury followed by proliferation and fusion of myoblasts into myotubes. Myogenesis is orchestrated through the expression of a specific set of genes which, at each step regulated by complex gene regulatory networks. Besides the well-established roles of transcription factors, increasing evidence demonstrated that circular (circ)RNAs modulate gene expression during myogenesis and are involved in muscle-related diseases. Here we review the recent findings of circRNAs involved in myogenesis.

Rolling Circle cDNA Synthesis Uncovers Circular RNA Splice Variants.

High-throughput RNA sequencing and novel bioinformatic pipelines have identified thousands of circular (circ)RNAs containing backsplice junction sequences. However, circRNAs generated from multiple exons may contain different combinations of exons and/or introns arising from alternative splicing, while the backsplice junction sequence is the same. To be able to identify circRNA splice variants, we developed a method termed circRNA-Rolling Circle Amplification (circRNA-RCA). This method detects full-length circRNA sequences by performing reverse transcription (RT) in the absence of RNase H activity, followed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of full-length circRNAs using a forward primer spanning the backsplice junction sequence and a reverse primer exactly upstream of the forward primer. By sequencing the PCR products, circRNA splice variants bearing the same backsplice junctions, which were otherwise only predicted computationally, could be experimentally validated. The splice variants were further predicted to associate with different subsets of target RNA-binding proteins and microRNAs, supporting the notion that different circRNA splice variants can have different biological impacts. In sum, the circRNA-RCA method allows the accurate identification of full-length circRNA sequences, offering unique insight into their individual function.

Correction: Polysome Fractionation to Analyze mRNA Distribution Profiles.

[This corrects the article PMC5431591.].

Loss of miR-451a enhances SPARC production during myogenesis.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs that critically regulate gene expression. Their abundance and function have been linked to a range of physiologic and pathologic processes. In aged monkey muscle, miR-451a and miR-144-3p were far more abundant than in young monkey muscle. This observation led us to hypothesize that miR-451a and miR-144-3p may influence muscle homeostasis. To test if these conserved microRNAs were implicated in myogenesis, we investigated their function in the mouse myoblast line C2C12. The levels of both microRNAs declined with myogenesis; however, only overexpression of miR-451a, but not miR-144-3p, robustly impeded C2C12 differentiation, suggesting an inhibitory role for miR-451a in myogenesis. Further investigation of the regulatory influence of miR-451a identified as one of the major targets Sparc mRNA, which encodes a secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC) that functions in wound healing and cellular differentiation. In mouse myoblasts, miR-451a suppressed Sparc mRNA translation. Together, our findings indicate that miR-451a is downregulated in differentiated myoblasts and suggest that it decreases C2C12 differentiation at least in part by suppressing SPARC biosynthesis.