Clinical features and outcomes of horses presenting with presumed equine immune mediated keratitis to two veterinary hospitals in the United Kingdom and Finland: 94 cases (2009-2021).

BACKGROUND: There is limited literature regarding equine immune mediated keratitis (IMMK) in Europe. North America-based publications describe minimal blepharospasm, rare corneal ulceration and no uveitis; clinical impression suggests these are seen in Europe. OBJECTIVES: Assess the prevalence of blepharospasm, corneal ulceration and uveitis and their impact on outcome in horses diagnosed with IMMK in Europe (UK and Finland). STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective case series. METHODS: Clinical records of 94 horses with IMMK were evaluated. The UK and Finland populations were comparable; therefore, descriptive statistics were performed on combined data on subtypes of IMMK and clinical features. Odds ratios (OR) and confidence intervals (CI) were calculated for impact of blepharospasm, ulceration or presence of uveitis on the outcome of enucleation and treatment duration. RESULTS: IMMK subtype was classified as 10/94 (10.6%) epithelial, 50/94 (53.2%) anterior stromal, 14/94 (14.9%) mid-stromal, 4/94 (4.25%) endothelial and 16/94 (17.0%) unrecorded. After excluding three horses with incidental corneal ulceration, blepharospasm was documented in 34/91 (37.4%), corneal ulceration in 26/91 (28.6%), and signs of uveitis in 23/91 (25.3%) horses. Increased odds of enucleation were significantly associated with the presence of blepharospasm (OR 5.5, 95% CI 1.6-19.4, p = 0.008) and signs of uveitis (OR 8.9, 95% CI 2.6-30.8, p < 0.001), but not corneal ulceration. The presence of blepharospasm, corneal ulceration or uveitis did not significantly alter the odds of ongoing medication. MAIN LIMITATIONS: Data were collected over a wide timeframe; the diagnosis was mainly made without histopathology; a broad definition of uveitis was used and there was a bias towards complicated cases being retained for follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: The clinical features of IMMK were similar between two European countries but differed to USA descriptions. Blepharospasm, corneal ulceration and signs of uveitis can occur with IMMK; presence of blepharospasm and uveitis increase the odds of enucleation.

Canine ovarian epithelial tumours: histopathological and immunohistochemical evaluation with proposed histopathological classification system.

Canine ovarian epithelial tumours (OETs) are currently divided into ovarian adenomas and carcinomas, which are further inconsistently subclassified as papillary or cystic, whereas in human medicine, OETs are subdivided into several subtypes. This study aimed to establish clear morphological features enabling more consistent distinction between benign OETs and ovarian carcinomas (OvCas) as well as defining different histopathological patterns of canine OvCas. Analysis revealed a mitotic count threshold of >2 as a potential criterion for differentiating OvCas from benign OETs. Alongside ovarian adenomas, ovarian borderline tumours were introduced as a distinct category among benign OETs. OvCas exhibited five different histopathological patterns, namely papillary, solid with tubular differentiation, micropapillary, cystic and sarcomatous. Since some OvCas can morphologically overlap with other ovarian tumours, the expression of cytokeratin 7, a cytokeratin expressed in ovarian epithelium, was assessed and proved helpful, although it was not expressed in all cases. Furthermore, we investigated the expression of 14-3-3σ and cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2). Based on the frequent expression of 14-3-3σ, this marker appears to have a role in canine OETs since it is not expressed in normal canine ovaries. The infrequent expression of COX-2 suggests that it is a poor candidate as a potential therapeutic target in canine OvCas.

CD117 expression in canine ovarian tumours.

Canine ovarian cancer poses a significant diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. The heterogeneous nature of ovarian tumours makes accurate histological identification difficult, whilst treatment is limited to surgical excision. The tyrosine kinase receptor CD117 is neo-expressed in many tumours and represents a potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarker and therapeutic target. This study aimed to establish if CD117 is neoexpressed in canine ovarian tumours. Immunohistochemistry was employed to assess expression of CD117 in 29 canine ovarian tumour samples. CD117 labelling was assessed with a semiquantitative immunoreactivity score, and the location of labelling was recorded as membranous, focal cytoplasmic or diffuse cytoplasmic. Histological morphology was assessed and used to assign subgroups based on growth pattern. Cytokeratin 7 labelling was used to indicate the tumour type as epithelial or sex-cord stromal in origin. Mitotic index, percentage of necrosis and vascular invasion were also assessed and evaluated for association with CD117 expression. Overall, 81% of ovarian tumours neoexpressed CD117 and normal ovarian tissue did not express CD117. Positive immunolabelling was seen in a subset of cells in both ovarian carcinomas (n = 20) and ovarian granulosa cell tumours (n = 3). There was no association between CD117 expression and patient age, histological subtype, mitotic index, percentage of necrosis or vascular invasion. This is the largest study to identify the expression of CD117 in canine ovarian tumours, but further research is needed to elucidate its prognostic and therapeutic value.

Palmitoyl transferase ZDHHC20 promotes pancreatic cancer metastasis.

Metastasis is one of the defining features of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) that contributes to poor prognosis. In this study, the palmitoyl transferase ZDHHC20 was identified in an in vivo short hairpin RNA (shRNA) screen as critical for metastatic outgrowth, with no effect on proliferation and migration in vitro or primary PDAC growth in mice. This phenotype is abrogated in immunocompromised animals and animals with depleted natural killer (NK) cells, indicating that ZDHHC20 affects the interaction of tumor cells and the innate immune system. Using a chemical genetics platform for ZDHHC20-specific substrate profiling, a number of substrates of this enzyme were identified. These results describe a role for palmitoylation in enabling distant metastasis that could not have been detected using in vitro screening approaches and identify potential effectors through which ZDHHC20 promotes metastasis of PDAC.

Dietary fibre supplementation enhances radiotherapy tumour control and alleviates intestinal radiation toxicity.

BACKGROUND: Non-toxic approaches to enhance radiotherapy outcomes are beneficial, particularly in ageing populations. Based on preclinical findings showing that high-fibre diets sensitised bladder tumours to irradiation by modifying the gut microbiota, along with clinical evidence of prebiotics enhancing anti-cancer immunity, we hypothesised that dietary fibre and its gut microbiota modification can radiosensitise tumours via secretion of metabolites and/or immunomodulation. We investigated the efficacy of high-fibre diets combined with irradiation in immunoproficient C57BL/6 mice bearing bladder cancer flank allografts. RESULT: Psyllium plus inulin significantly decreased tumour size and delayed tumour growth following irradiation compared to 0.2% cellulose and raised intratumoural CD8+ cells. Post-irradiation, tumour control positively correlated with Lachnospiraceae family abundance. Psyllium plus resistant starch radiosensitised the tumours, positively correlating with Bacteroides genus abundance and increased caecal isoferulic acid levels, associated with a favourable response in terms of tumour control. Psyllium plus inulin mitigated the acute radiation injury caused by 14 Gy. Psyllium plus inulin increased caecal acetate, butyrate and propionate levels, and psyllium alone and psyllium plus resistant starch increased acetate levels. Human gut microbiota profiles at the phylum level were generally more like mouse 0.2% cellulose profiles than high fibre profiles. CONCLUSION: These supplements may be useful in combination with radiotherapy in patients with pelvic malignancy. Video Abstract.

Vitamin D regulates microbiome-dependent cancer immunity.

A role for vitamin D in immune modulation and in cancer has been suggested. In this work, we report that mice with increased availability of vitamin D display greater immune-dependent resistance to transplantable cancers and augmented responses to checkpoint blockade immunotherapies. Similarly, in humans, vitamin D-induced genes correlate with improved responses to immune checkpoint inhibitor treatment as well as with immunity to cancer and increased overall survival. In mice, resistance is attributable to the activity of vitamin D on intestinal epithelial cells, which alters microbiome composition in favor of Bacteroides fragilis, which positively regulates cancer immunity. Our findings indicate a previously unappreciated connection between vitamin D, microbial commensal communities, and immune responses to cancer. Collectively, they highlight vitamin D levels as a potential determinant of cancer immunity and immunotherapy success.

Blimp-1 and c-Maf regulate immune gene networks to protect against distinct pathways of pathobiont-induced colitis.

Intestinal immune responses to microbes are controlled by the cytokine IL-10 to avoid immune pathology. Here, we use single-cell RNA sequencing of colon lamina propria leukocytes (LPLs) along with RNA-seq and ATAC-seq of purified CD4+ T cells to show that the transcription factors Blimp-1 (encoded by Prdm1) and c-Maf co-dominantly regulate Il10 while negatively regulating proinflammatory cytokines in effector T cells. Double-deficient Prdm1fl/flMaffl/flCd4Cre mice infected with Helicobacter hepaticus developed severe colitis with an increase in TH1/NK/ILC1 effector genes in LPLs, while Prdm1fl/flCd4Cre and Maffl/flCd4Cre mice exhibited moderate pathology and a less-marked type 1 effector response. LPLs from infected Maffl/flCd4Cre mice had increased type 17 responses with increased Il17a and Il22 expression and an increase in granulocytes and myeloid cell numbers, resulting in increased T cell-myeloid-neutrophil interactions. Genes over-expressed in human inflammatory bowel disease showed differential expression in LPLs from infected mice in the absence of Prdm1 or Maf, revealing potential mechanisms of human disease.

Streptococcus zooepidemicus in dogs: Exploring a canine pathogen through multilocus sequence typing.

Streptococcus equi. subsp. zooepidemicus (S. zooepidemicus) associated diseases in dogs have emerged as a significant concern over recent decades. S. zooepidemicus occurs sporadically in dog populations globally, with increased prevalence in shelters/kennels. This study used multilocus sequence typing (MLST) of 149 independent canine S. zooepidemicus isolates to assess associations between sequence type and breed, country of origin, disease severity, sampling type, year, and behaviour within an outbreak. No clear associations for breed, country, sampling type and year were determined in this study. ST-10 and 123 strains were present within all disease categories, from no clinical signs to severe disease. Assessment of S. zooepidemicus infection in 3 UK outbreaks at the same location found ST-10, 18, 123 strains, and a ST-173 strain in a US outbreak, were associated with haemorrhagic pneumonia and persisted in kennelled populations over time. The ST-173 clonal complex has been noted to have severe virulence capabilities in dogs and other species. S. zooepidemicus seems to thrive in environments with a high risk of transmissibility, overcrowding, stress and naïve populations, particularly for those in shelters/kennels. MLST alone cannot determine the virulence phenotype of S. zooepidemicus in dogs. However, a level of conservancy and diversity within ST allelic loci aids the opportunity to cause severe disease in dogs. Thus, further research into whole genome sequencing and characterising the virulence factors of S. zooepidemicus is warranted in dogs.

The role of APOBEC3B in lung tumor evolution and targeted cancer therapy resistance.

In this study, the impact of the apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing catalytic subunit-like (APOBEC) enzyme APOBEC3B (A3B) on epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)-driven lung cancer was assessed. A3B expression in EGFR mutant (EGFRmut) non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) mouse models constrained tumorigenesis, while A3B expression in tumors treated with EGFR-targeted cancer therapy was associated with treatment resistance. Analyses of human NSCLC models treated with EGFR-targeted therapy showed upregulation of A3B and revealed therapy-induced activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) as an inducer of A3B expression. Significantly reduced viability was observed with A3B deficiency, and A3B was required for the enrichment of APOBEC mutation signatures, in targeted therapy-treated human NSCLC preclinical models. Upregulation of A3B was confirmed in patients with NSCLC treated with EGFR-targeted therapy. This study uncovers the multifaceted roles of A3B in NSCLC and identifies A3B as a potential target for more durable responses to targeted cancer therapy.

One Health Approach: Invasive California Kingsnake (Lampropeltis californiae) as an Important Source of Antimicrobial Drug-Resistant Salmonella Clones on Gran Canaria Island.

The increase in the reptile population has led to a rise in the number of zoonotic infections due to close contact with reptiles, with reptile-associated salmonellosis being particularly relevant. California kingsnake invasion not only threatens the endemic reptile population of the island of Gran Canaria (Spain) but also poses serious public health problems by spreading zoonotic pathogens and their antimicrobial resistance (AMR) to the environment. Thus, the aim of this study was to assess the occurrence, genetic diversity, and AMR among Salmonella spp. strains isolated from California kingsnakes in Gran Canaria Island (Spain). Of 73 invasive individuals captured, 20.5% carried Salmonella spp., belonging to different subspecies and serovars, with subsp. salamae as the most abundant. Pulsed-field electrophoresis showed high genetic diversity among subsp. salamae isolates, and among these, 73.3% showed resistance to at least one of the antimicrobials tested. In conclusion, the present study revealed the importance of wild invasive California kingsnakes as reservoirs of drug-resistant Salmonella spp. that could pose a direct threat to livestock and humans. Identification of drug-resistant Salmonella strains in wildlife provides valuable information on potential routes of transmission that involve risks to public and animal health.

Cross-species oncogenomics offers insight into human muscle-invasive bladder cancer.

BACKGROUND: In humans, muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) is highly aggressive and associated with a poor prognosis. With a high mutation load and large number of altered genes, strategies to delineate key driver events are necessary. Dogs and cats develop urothelial carcinoma (UC) with histological and clinical similarities to human MIBC. Cattle that graze on bracken fern also develop UC, associated with exposure to the carcinogen ptaquiloside. These species may represent relevant animal models of spontaneous and carcinogen-induced UC that can provide insight into human MIBC. RESULTS: Whole-exome sequencing of domestic canine (n = 87) and feline (n = 23) UC, and comparative analysis with human MIBC reveals a lower mutation rate in animal cases and the absence of APOBEC mutational signatures. A convergence of driver genes (ARID1A, KDM6A, TP53, FAT1, and NRAS) is discovered, along with common focally amplified and deleted genes involved in regulation of the cell cycle and chromatin remodelling. We identify mismatch repair deficiency in a subset of canine and feline UCs with biallelic inactivation of MSH2. Bovine UC (n = 8) is distinctly different; we identify novel mutational signatures which are recapitulated in vitro in human urinary bladder UC cells treated with bracken fern extracts or purified ptaquiloside. CONCLUSION: Canine and feline urinary bladder UC represent relevant models of MIBC in humans, and cross-species analysis can identify evolutionarily conserved driver genes. We characterize mutational signatures in bovine UC associated with bracken fern and ptaquiloside exposure, a human-linked cancer exposure. Our work demonstrates the relevance of cross-species comparative analysis in understanding both human and animal UC.

Endothelial AHR activity prevents lung barrier disruption in viral infection.

Disruption of the lung endothelial-epithelial cell barrier following respiratory virus infection causes cell and fluid accumulation in the air spaces and compromises vital gas exchange function1. Endothelial dysfunction can exacerbate tissue damage2,3, yet it is unclear whether the lung endothelium promotes host resistance against viral pathogens. Here we show that the environmental sensor aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) is highly active in lung endothelial cells and protects against influenza-induced lung vascular leakage. Loss of AHR in endothelia exacerbates lung damage and promotes the infiltration of red blood cells and leukocytes into alveolar air spaces. Moreover, barrier protection is compromised and host susceptibility to secondary bacterial infections is increased when endothelial AHR is missing. AHR engages tissue-protective transcriptional networks in endothelia, including the vasoactive apelin-APJ peptide system4, to prevent a dysplastic and apoptotic response in airway epithelial cells. Finally, we show that protective AHR signalling in lung endothelial cells is dampened by the infection itself. Maintenance of protective AHR function requires a diet enriched in naturally occurring AHR ligands, which activate disease tolerance pathways in lung endothelia to prevent tissue damage. Our findings demonstrate the importance of endothelial function in lung barrier immunity. We identify a gut-lung axis that affects lung damage following encounters with viral pathogens, linking dietary composition and intake to host fitness and inter-individual variations in disease outcome.

Olfactory neuroblastoma in a domestic cat and review of the literature.

Nasal tumors account for less than 10% of all feline neoplasms, with lymphoma, followed by adenocarcinoma, and squamous cell carcinoma, the most commonly reported. Nasal neuroectodermal tumors, including olfactory neuroblastoma (ONB), are scarcely described, and their tumorigenesis is largely unknown. Here we report the cytological, histological, and immunohistochemical features of a feline ONB. We also provide a pathological review of nasal neuroendocrine neoplasms in cats. A 7-year-old Burmese cat was evaluated for sneezing, occasional epistaxis, and upper respiratory noise for 8 months. Computed tomography (CT) imaging revealed a 7 × 5 × 3 mm irregular mass effacing and expanding the nasal cavity, which extended to the nasopharynx. Cytologically, neoplastic cells were round to polygonal and had a round nucleus with finely stippled chromatin, a single small nucleolus, and abundant pale blue cytoplasm, which contained abundant fine pale pink granules. They exhibited mild cellular atypia, anisocytosis, and mild to occasionally moderate anisokaryosis. Rhinoscopic biopsies revealed a densely cellular, malignant neuroepithelial neoplasm. Cells were arranged in densely packed trabeculae and formed Homer Wright and Flexner-Wintersteiner-like rosettes, with rare mitotic figures and scant supportive fibrovascular stroma. Immunohistochemically, neoplastic cells were positive for vimentin, cytokeratin AE1/AE3, COX-2, and beta-tubulin and negative for S-100, chromogranin A, CD117, and epithelial membrane antigen (EMA). An ONB was diagnosed based on histological and immunohistochemical findings. Interestingly, and similar to nasal carcinomas, neoplastic cells diffusely neo-expressed COX-2. To the authors' knowledge, there is no previous evidence of COX-2 in feline ONB. Histopathology and immunohistochemistry are required for a definitive diagnosis of ONB.

Type I interferons drive MAIT cell functions against bacterial pneumonia.

Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are abundant in the lung and contribute to host defense against infections. During bacterial infections, MAIT cell activation has been proposed to require T cell receptor (TCR)-mediated recognition of antigens derived from the riboflavin synthesis pathway presented by the antigen-presenting molecule MR1. MAIT cells can also be activated by cytokines in an MR1-independent manner, yet the contribution of MR1-dependent vs. -independent signals to MAIT cell functions in vivo remains unclear. Here, we use Klebsiella pneumoniae as a model of bacterial pneumonia and demonstrate that MAIT cell activation is independent of MR1 and primarily driven by type I interferons (IFNs). During Klebsiella infection, type I IFNs stimulate activation of murine and human MAIT cells, induce a Th1/cytotoxic transcriptional program, and modulate MAIT cell location within the lungs. Consequently, adoptive transfer or boosting of pulmonary MAIT cells protect mice from Klebsiella infection, with protection being dependent on direct type I IFN signaling on MAIT cells. These findings reveal type I IFNs as new molecular targets to manipulate MAIT cell functions during bacterial infections.

Pathology and causes of death in captive meerkats (Suricata suricatta).

BACKGROUND: Meerkats (Suricata suricatta) are endemic carnivores of southern Africa and, although currently listed as 'least concern' by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list, there is evidence of a significant decrease in wild populations mainly attributed to effects of climate change. Little is known about diseases associated with mortality in captive meerkats. AIM: To characterise macroscopic and microscopic lesions that accounted for the death or euthanasia in a series of captive meerkats. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Eight captive meerkats submitted for post-mortem examination between 2018 and 2022. RESULTS: Three animals died unexpectedly without clinical signs, 2 exhibited neurological signs, 2 collapsed after con-specific fighting and 1 showed gastrointestinal signs. Common pathological findings of this study that may be related to the death of captive meerkats included foreign bodies (trichobezoars or plastic materials) within the alimentary tract, traumatic penetrating injuries or starvation associated with abnormal social behaviours (bullying and con-specific attacks), verminous pneumonia and systemic atherosclerosis. Common incidental findings included pulmonary edema and congestion, cholesterol granulomas, pulmonary adenomas and vertebral spondylosis. CONCLUSIONS: Non-infectious diseases outreach infectious diseases as causes of mortality in captive meerkats including, foreign bodies within the alimentary tract, con-specific attacks and systemic atherosclerosis, which is described for the first time. These data should raise concern about appropriate husbandry (e.g. environmental enrichment, cleaning of facilities and diet formulation) by zookeepers and emphasise the need for further study of meerkat mortality in both captive and wild populations.

Characterization of intestinal fibrosis in cats with chronic inflammatory enteropathy.

BACKGROUND: Intestinal fibrosis (IF) is commonly identified on histopathology of intestinal biopsy specimens (IBSp) from cats with chronic inflammatory enteropathy (CIE) however, its clinical relevance is unknown. OBJECTIVES: Characterize and determine the clinical relevance of IF in cats with CIE. ANIMALS: Sixty-five client-owned cats diagnosed with CIE after gastrointestinal histopathology from a single referral hospital in the United Kingdom. METHODS: Medical records were retrospectively searched for cases of CIE on the basis of histopathology of IBSp. The IBSp from eligible cats were re-reviewed by a single board-certified veterinary pathologist for inclusion. Masson's trichrome (MT) stain and immunohistochemical labeling using antivimentin and anticollagen I antibodies to identify IF. For each case, various variables at the time of diagnostic investigation were recorded and referring veterinarians were contacted for follow-up information. RESULTS: Mucosal fibrosis was identified in 51% of duodenal and 76% of colonic hematoxylin and eosin (HE)-stained IBSp. Vimentin labeling and MT staining identified additional cases of IF in 65% and 58% of the duodenal biopsy specimens, respectively. Vimentin labeling detected IF in 79% of the colonic biopsy specimens. Positive vimentin labeling and MT staining of the colonic mucosa were associated with decreased likelihood of attaining clinical remission and increased risk of death because of CIE (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Additional stains at initial histopathologic examination of IBSp allow for better identification of IF compared to routine HE staining. Identification of IF in colonic biopsy specimens by vimentin immunolabeling and MT staining may provide prognostic information in cats with CIE.

Lung adenocarcinoma promotion by air pollutants.

A complete understanding of how exposure to environmental substances promotes cancer formation is lacking. More than 70 years ago, tumorigenesis was proposed to occur in a two-step process: an initiating step that induces mutations in healthy cells, followed by a promoter step that triggers cancer development1. Here we propose that environmental particulate matter measuring ≤2.5 µm (PM2.5), known to be associated with lung cancer risk, promotes lung cancer by acting on cells that harbour pre-existing oncogenic mutations in healthy lung tissue. Focusing on EGFR-driven lung cancer, which is more common in never-smokers or light smokers, we found a significant association between PM2.5 levels and the incidence of lung cancer for 32,957 EGFR-driven lung cancer cases in four within-country cohorts. Functional mouse models revealed that air pollutants cause an influx of macrophages into the lung and release of interleukin-1ß. This process results in a progenitor-like cell state within EGFR mutant lung alveolar type II epithelial cells that fuels tumorigenesis. Ultradeep mutational profiling of histologically normal lung tissue from 295 individuals across 3 clinical cohorts revealed oncogenic EGFR and KRAS driver mutations in 18% and 53% of healthy tissue samples, respectively. These findings collectively support a tumour-promoting role for  PM2.5 air pollutants  and provide impetus for public health policy initiatives to address air pollution to reduce disease burden.

Impact of exposure to urban air pollution on grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) lung health.

The increased rate of global urbanisation has recently exacerbated the significant public health problem of traffic related air pollution. Despite the known significant impact on human health, little is known about the effects of air pollution on wildlife health. The lung is the primary target organ for the effects of exposure to air pollution, leading to lung inflammation, altering the lung epigenome, culminating in respiratory disease. In this study, we aimed to assess lung health and DNA methylation profiles in Eastern grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) populations living across an urban-rural air pollution gradient. Squirrel lung health was assessed in four populations situated across the most polluted inner-city boroughs to the less polluted edges of Greater London. We also assessed lung DNA methylation across three London sites and a further two rural sites in Sussex and North Wales. Lung and tracheal diseases were present in 28% and 13% of the squirrels respectively. Specifically, focal inflammation (13%), focal macrophages with vacuolated cytoplasm (3%) and endogenous lipid pneumonia (3%). There was no significant difference in prevalence of lung, tracheal diseases, anthracosis (carbon presence) or lung DNA methylation levels between urban sites and urban and rural sites respectively or NO2 levels. BALT (Bronchus-Associated Lymphoid Tissue) was significantly smaller in the site with highest NO2 and contained the highest carbon loading compared to sites with lower NO2, however differences in carbon loading in between sites were not significant. High pollution site individuals also had significantly higher numbers of alveolar macrophages which suggests that grey squirrels are exposed to and respond to traffic-related air pollution and further research is needed to understand the impact of traffic-related air pollutants on wildlife health.

Multisystemic eosinophilic epitheliotropic disease in three donkeys.

Multisystemic eosinophilic epitheliotropic disease (MEED) is a rare condition of equids characterized by eosinophilic infiltration of multiple organs. Clinical signs are variable depending on the affected organs. The most common clinical signs include chronic weight loss, diarrhoea and exfoliative dermatitis. Respiratory distress and raised liver enzymes are less frequently seen. The cause is unknown and the pathogenesis is poorly understood. There are less than 50 reported cases of horses with MEED. We now document the lesions in three donkeys with fluctuating or chronic loss of weight, lethargy, exfoliative dermatitis and peripheral eosinophilia. All three animals were euthanized due to poor prognosis and welfare concerns. Post-mortem examination revealed multiple white to tan, irregular masses composed of eosinophilic infiltrates, including eosinophilic granulomas in several organs, confirming the presence of MEED. To the best of our knowledge, MEED has not previously been reported in donkeys.