Patient navigation for perinatal substance use disorder treatment: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Substance use during the perinatal period (i.e., pregnancy through the first year postpartum) can pose significant maternal and infant health risks. However, access to lifesaving medications and standard care remains low for perinatal persons who use substances. This lack of substance use disorder treatment access stems from fragmented services, stigma, and social determinants of health-related barriers that could be addressed using patient navigators. This systematic review describes patient navigation models of care for perinatal people who use substances and associated outcomes. METHODS: We conducted a structured search of peer-reviewed, US-focused, English- or Spanish-language articles from 2000 to 2023 focused on 1) patient navigation, 2) prenatal and postpartum care, and 3) substance use treatment programs using PubMed, Scopus, PsycINFO, and CINAHL databases. RESULTS: After meeting eligibility criteria, 17 studies were included in this review. The majority (n=8) described outpatient patient navigation programs, with notable hospital (n=4) and residential (n=3) programs. Patient navigation was associated with reduced maternal substance use, increased receipt of services, and improved maternal and neonatal health. Findings were mixed for engagement in substance use disorder treatment and child custody outcomes. Programs that co-located care, engaged patients across the perinatal period, and worked to build trust and communication with family members and service providers were particularly successful. CONCLUSION: Patient navigation may be a promising strategy for improving maternal and infant health outcomes among perinatal persons who use substances. More experimental research is needed to test the effect of patient navigation programs for perinatal persons who use substances compared to other models of care.

Naloxone access in perinatal substance use disorder.

BACKGROUND: Risk of fatal drug overdose is higher in pregnant and postpartum people with substance use disorder (SUD) than for nonpregnant women of reproductive age. It is recommended that naloxone is prescribed for pregnancies complicated by opioid or stimulant use disorder. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to assess the rates of naloxone coprescribing with buprenorphine in a perinatal SUD (PSUD) specialty clinic and identify opportunities for pharmacist-led interventions to improve communication and documentation surrounding naloxone access to achieve a rate of 100% coprescribing of naloxone with buprenorphine. PRACTICE DESCRIPTION: A clinical pharmacist practitioner is embedded on the Project CARA (Care that Advocates Respect/Resilience/Recovery for All) team, which provides outpatient SUD care integrated with perinatal care in Western North Carolina. PRACTICE INNOVATION: The clinical pharmacist practitioner assessed baseline rates of naloxone coprescribing with medications for opioid use disorder. Interventions to improve rates of coprescribing include provider education, electronic health record (EHR) documentation templates, and direct patient outreach. EVALUATION METHODS: Baseline rates of naloxone coprescribing were assessed and then re-evaluated after different interventions to measure pharmacist impact. RESULTS: Each intervention improved rates of naloxone coprescribing in a PSUD clinic. EHR documentation templates had the largest impact on baseline efforts, although the long-term benefits derived from these efforts have not yet been demonstrated. Substantial time investment from the pharmacist was required to address patients' barriers to obtaining naloxone after their visits. CONCLUSION: Further process improvement should address barriers to naloxone access for both patients and providers. This may include proactive identification of patients in need of naloxone and a "meds-to-beds" pilot to assist patients in navigating logistical challenges.

Accessing perinatal substance use disorder care in your local community: A case study of an innovative hub and spoke network in western North Carolina.

INTRODUCTION: The incidence of substance use disorders (SUD) in the general population and in the pregnant person population has risen over the last 20 years. Concurrently, both perinatal and SUD care in rural areas is laden with access barriers including but not limited to geographical distance from potential treatment and stigma. An integrated outpatient perinatal substance use disorder (PSUD) clinic in an urban area in western North Carolina (WNC) found that patients who traveled further for prenatal care were less likely to continue seeking care in the postpartum period. Acknowledging that the risk of overdose increases in the postpartum period, the PSUD clinic utilized a hub and spoke model to promote healthcare accessibility. METHODS: The clinic adapted the Vermont hub and spoke model and the CHARM (Children and Recovering Mothers) collaborative. The urban hub in WNC has now developed eight spokes in rural communities. The hub provides education and technical assistance to the rural spokes, and the two engage in bidirectional referral pathways. This manuscript details the model and analyzes the existing strengths and barriers at two spokes, a family medicine Federally Qualified Health Center and a hospital affiliated obstetrics and gynecology practice and analyzes their process of implementation of integrated outpatient perinatal substance use care. RESULTS: Both spokes found coaching relationships and the sharing of resources such as clinical guidelines useful to begin prescribing buprenorphine for PSUD. Their context led one spoke to begin prescribing within one year while the other took two years. CONCLUSION: Comparing and contrasting these spokes serves to demonstrate that across many contexts, a hub and spoke model is a replicable intervention for rural perinatal substance use access to care barriers. Comparing the two spokes emphasizes the need for adaptation as well as standardization of the model to improve evidence-based PSUD care most effectively.

Opioid Use Disorder Practice by Licensure Category in North Carolina.

Background: Nurse practitioners, physician assistants, and certified nurse midwives, collectively known as advanced practice providers (APPs), are critical members of the opioid use disorder (OUD) treatment workforce. Few studies compare the OUD treatment practice patterns of APPs relative to physicians. Methods: In this cross-sectional study, we distributed a survey examining general substance use disorder (SUD) and OUD-specific treat-ment practices to all licensed physicians and APPs in North Carolina, resulting in a sample of 332 respondents. Respondents were asked about screening, referrals, and Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) X-waiver status. Waivered providers were asked about prescribing buprenorphine. Differences in practice patterns by provider type were examined using descriptive statistics and chi-squared tests. Results: Practice patterns were similar between APPs and physicians; however, more APPs reported screening their patients for SUDs (83.3% versus 69.4%, p = .0045). Of the providers who were waivered to prescribe buprenorphine, APPs and physicians were equally likely to be currently prescribing buprenorphine (75.8% versus 77.1%, p = .8900). Limitations: This was a descriptive cross-sectional study using self-report data from a purposive sample and may not be representative of all providers. Conclusions: Our results describe practice patterns for APPs and physicians and differences that may be reflective of regulations and therapeutic approaches. Similarities in obtaining an X-waiver and prescribing buprenorphine suggest that reducing restrictions on APPs may result in a larger treatment workforce.

Factors associated with contraceptive use among postpartum women with substance use disorder.

OBJECTIVE: Rates of unintended pregnancy among women with substance use disorder (SUD) are much higher than the general reproductive-age population, suggesting lower rates of contraceptive use. This study aims to determine the prevalence of contraceptive use in postpartum women with SUD and identify factors associated with its use. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study using electronic health record data from 2016 to 2019 included postpartum adult women with any SUD who received care at a high-risk pregnancy clinic (n = 353). The primary outcome was contraception utilization as identified using diagnosis and procedure codes. An adjusted multivariate logistic regression was used to evaluate the relationship between postpartum contraceptive use and sample characteristics. RESULTS: Of the 353 postpartum women with SUD, contraceptive use was found in 128 (36.3%) women. Among the study population, the most commonly reported substance use disorders were nicotine use disorder (70.3%), opioid use disorder (51.3%), and cannabis use disorder (15.0%). Among those with opioid use disorder, 45.3% were found to be using medication for opioid use disorder (MOUD). Women who attended a postpartum visit had 2.23 times the odds of using contraception compared to women who did not (OR: 2.23, 95% CI: 1.20-4.15). Those using MOUD had 3.69 times the odds of using contraception compared to those who were not (OR: 3.69, 95% CI: 1.89-7.19). Overall, women who utilized contraception were more likely to be younger than 25, receiving MOUD, and participating in postpartum care. CONCLUSIONS: Postpartum women with SUD are not using contraceptive methods and this is associated with a lack of appropriate healthcare interventions in the perinatal period, which can reduce the odds of receiving effective family planning services. Specialized whole-health interventions and policies to increase access to care for women with SUD should be developed.

Advanced Practice Provider-Led Medication for Opioid Use Disorder Programs for Pregnant and Parenting Women.

This article describes 2 innovative models of advanced practice provider-led medication for opioid use disorder treatment programs offering comprehensive, interprofessional care for pregnant patients and provides implications for broader adaptation of practice. Increasing the number of midwives and nurse practitioners waivered to prescribe buprenorphine and able to connect pregnant patients with opioid use disorder to appropriate community-based resources, treatment, and self-help programs could address alarming substance use trends including overdose deaths and other sequelae associated with the opioid epidemic.

Assessing Preconception Wellness in the Clinical Setting Using Electronic Health Data.

Background: One key strategy to reduce maternal morbidity and mortality involves optimizing prepregnancy health. Although nine core indicators of preconception wellness (PCW) have been proposed by clinical experts, few studies have attempted to assess the preconception health status of a population using these indicators. Methods: We conducted a retrospective chart review study of patients who received prenatal or primary care, identified by pregnancy-related ICD-10 codes, at either of two health systems in geographically and socioeconomically different areas of North Carolina between October 1, 2015, and September 30, 2018. Our primary study aim was to determine the feasibility of measuring the proposed PCW indicators through retrospective review of prenatal electronic health records at these two institutions. Results: Data were collected from 15,384 patients at Site 1 and 6,983 patients at Site 2. The indicators most likely to be documented and to meet the preconception health goal at each site were avoidance of teratogenic medications (98.8% and 98.3% at Sites 1 and 2, respectively) and entry to care in the first trimester (64.5% and 73.5% at Sites 1 and 2, respectively), whereas our measures of folic acid use, depression screening, and discussion of family planning were documented less than 20% of the time at both sites. Conclusions: Differences in measuring and documenting PCW indicators across the two health systems in our study presented barriers to monitoring and optimizing PCW. Efforts to address health and wellness before pregnancy will likely require health systems and payors to standardize, incorporate, and promote preconception health indicators that can be consistently measured and analyzed across health systems.

"The elephant in the room;" a qualitative study of perinatal fears in opioid use disorder treatment in Southern Appalachia.

BACKGROUND: Diagnoses of perinatal opioid use disorder (OUD) continue to rise in the United States. Patients and providers report obstacles to OUD treatment access. Difficulties include legal ambiguity related to Social Services notification requirements following a birth to people using opioids or in medication-assisted treatment for OUD. METHODS: Through semi-structured interviews, participant-observation, and a focus group conducted in a mostly rural, region of the Southern United States (where perinatal OUD is more prevalent), patients' and providers' perspectives about perinatal substance use treatment were initially sought for a larger study. The findings presented here are from a subset analysis of patients' experiences and perspectives. Following ethics review and exemption determination, a total of 27 patient participants were opportunistically, convenience, and/or purposively sampled and recruited to participate in interviews and/or a focus group. Data were analyzed using modified Grounded Theory. RESULTS: When asked about overall experiences with and barriers to accessing perinatal substance use treatment, 11 of 27 participants reported concerns about Social Services involvement resulting from disclosure of their substance use during pregnancy. In the subset analysis, prevalent themes were Fears of Social Services Involvement, Preparation for Delivery, and Providers Addressing Fears. CONCLUSIONS: Perinatal OUD patients may seek substance use treatment with existing fears of Social Services involvement. Patients appreciate providers' efforts to prepare them for this potential reality. Providers should become aware of how their own hospital systems, counties, states, and countries interpret laws governing notification requirements. By becoming aware of patients' fears, providers can be ready to discuss the implications of Social Services involvement, promote patient-centered decision-making, and increase trust.

Improving access to care through Advanced Practice Registered Nurses: Focus on perinatal patients with Opioid Use Disorder.

Perinatal substance use disorders, and all of the associated sequelae, continue to be a national health crisis that is further impacted by shifts in access to obstetrical care, particularly in rural areas. Opioid Use Disorder (OUD) specifically presents as a medical condition for which evidence-based guidelines support the use of medication treatment for opioid use disorder (MOUD) in the form of Methadone or Buprenorphine for both non-pregnant and pregnant women. However, the overall rates of access for those treatment modalities remain sparse. There is a public call to increase access to MOUD in the pregnant population affected by OUD. This article discusses the history of the Advanced Practice Registered Nurse (APRN) and how across legislative differences, these professionals are perfectly positioned to answer this call.

Association of Maternal Buprenorphine or Methadone Dose with Fetal Growth Indices and Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to compare fetal growth and incidence of neonatal abstinence syndrome requiring treatment across pregnant women with opioid use disorders on two types and two dose categories of medication-assisted treatment. STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective cohort study was conducted in a comprehensive, perinatal program in western North Carolina comparing growth percentiles on third-trimester ultrasound and at birth, and diagnosis of neonatal abstinence syndrome requiring treatment. Singletons were exposed in utero to low- to moderate-dose buprenorphine (≤16 mg/day; n = 70), high-dose buprenorphine (≥17 mg/day; n = 36), low- to moderate-dose methadone (≤89 mg/day; n = 41), or high-dose methadone (≥90 mg/day; n = 74). Multivariate analysis of variance with posthoc Bonferroni comparisons (p ≤ 0.01) and multinomial logistic regressions (adjusted odds ratio, 99% confidence interval) were conducted. RESULTS: Differences in neonatal outcomes reached statistical significance for larger head circumference for buprenorphine doses (p = 0.01) and for longer length (p < 0.01) and lower odds of neonatal abstinence syndrome requiring treatment (p < 0.01) with low- to moderate-dose buprenorphine versus high-dose methadone. CONCLUSION: Among pregnant women using medication-assisted treatment for opioid use disorders, low- to moderate-dose buprenorphine (≤16 mg/day) was associated with the most favorable neonatal outcomes. However, more rigorous control of confounders with a larger sample is necessary to determine if low- to moderate-dose buprenorphine is the better treatment choice.

The association of cannabis use late in pregnancy with engagement and retention in perinatal substance use disorder care for opioid use disorder: A cohort comparison.

BACKGROUND: Prenatal use of cannabis and opioids are increasing and very concerning. Engagement and retention in comprehensive, perinatal substance use disorder (PSUD) care are associated with better outcomes for mothers and babies. We compared the characteristics and engagement in care among women with opioid use disorder who used cannabis late in pregnancy versus those who didn't. METHODS: The primary outcome, "overall engagement and retention in PSUD care" included: utilization of substance use treatment prenatally, negative screening/toxicology at delivery (excluding cannabis), and attendance at expected prenatal and postpartum visits. Cannabis use late in pregnancy was objectively assessed at delivery via maternal urine drug screen and/or neonatal meconium/cord toxicology. Between-group comparisons utilized chi square, t-test or Mann-Whitney. Associations were assessed using Spearman Rho and two multivariate, binary logistic regressions for cannabis use and the primary outcome. RESULTS: 18.0% (85/472) consumed cannabis late in pregnancy. Women of color, younger women, and those diagnosed with concurrent cannabis use disorder were more likely to consume cannabis. Engagement and retention in PSUD care was not associated with cannabis use, but rather, with prescribed pharmacotherapy for psychiatric disorders. The use of prescribed buprenorphine+naloxone was associated with cannabis avoidance late in pregnancy. CONCLUSIONS: Cannabis use late in pregnancy, compared to none, did not impact engagement and retention in our PSUD program. Adjunctive psychotropic medication and/or buprenorphine+naloxone prescription were associated with cannabis avoidance suggesting the use and interactions of pharmacotherapies in an opioid dependent population is complex. A shared decision-making process during PSUD care is warranted.

A Cohort Comparison of Differences Between Regional and Buncombe County Patients of a Comprehensive Perinatal Substance Use Disorders Program in Western North Carolina.

BACKGROUND Pregnant patients from rural counties of Western North Carolina face additional barriers when accessing comprehensive perinatal substance use disorders care at Project CARA as compared to patients local to the program in Buncombe County. We hypothesized regional patients would be less engaged in care.METHOD Using a retrospective cohort design, univariate analyses (χ2, t-test; P < .05) compared patients' characteristics, engagement in care, and delivery outcomes. Engagement in care, the primary outcome, was operationalized as: attendance at expected, program-specific prenatal and postpartum visits, utilization of in-house counseling, community-based and/or inpatient substance use disorders treatment, and maternal urine drug screen at delivery negative for illicit substances.RESULTS Regional patients (n = 324) were more likely than Buncombe County patients (n = 284) to have opioid [209 (64.5%) versus 162 (57.0%)] or amphetamine/methamphetamine use disorders (25 [7.7%] versus 13 [4.6%]), but less likely to have cannabis use (19 [5.9%] versus 38 [13.4%]; P = .009) and concurrent psychiatric disorders (214 [66.0%] versus 220 [77.5%]; P = .002). Engagement at postpartum visits was the significantly different outcome between patients (110/221 [49.8%] versus 146/226 [64.6%]; P = .002).LIMITATIONS Outcomes were available for 66.8% of regional and 79.6% of Buncombe County patients of one program in one predominately white, non-Hispanic region of the state.CONCLUSION Contrary to our hypothesis, regional and Buncombe County women engaged in prenatal care equally. However, a more formal transition into the postpartum period is needed, especially for regional women. A "hub-and-spokes" model that extends delivery of perinatal substance use disorders care into rural communities may be more effective for engagement retention.

Buprenorphine and Naloxone Versus Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Disorder in Pregnancy: A Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVE: To compare maternal and fetal outcomes among dyads prescribed buprenorphine and naloxone or buprenorphine during pregnancy. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of patients with opioid use disorder obtaining care in a comprehensive, perinatal program. Patients utilized medication for opioid use disorder: a buprenorphine and naloxone combination product or buprenorphine monotherapy. The primary outcome was neonatal abstinence syndrome requiring treatment. Maternal secondary outcomes included: negative urine drug screen at delivery, obstetrical care attendance, primary cesarean delivery, and preterm delivery. Neonatal secondary outcomes included neonatal biometry, admission to neonatal intensive care, appropriate findings on cord toxicology, and length of stay. Univariate analyses included Chi square, Fisher exact, t-, or Mann-Whitney tests, as appropriate. Multivariate binary logistic regressions examined the association of type of buprenorphine product with diagnosis of neonatal abstinence syndrome requiring treatment and adjusted for variables significantly different in between-group comparisons and correlates of treatments and the primary outcome. RESULTS: The rate of neonatal abstinence syndrome was significantly higher (P = 0.007) among infants exposed in utero to buprenorphine versus buprenorphine and naloxone: 59/108 (54.6%) versus 30/85 (35.3%), respectively. The combined product, relative to the monoproduct, was associated with lower odds of neonatal abstinence syndrome: odds ratio (OR) = 0.453 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.253-0.813; P = 0.008). Adjusting for dose of buprenorphine product at delivery, year of expected delivery, type of prescriber, diagnosis of hepatitis C, and preterm delivery negated these results: adjusted OR = 0.627 (95% CI 0.309-1.275). Secondary outcomes were similar. CONCLUSION: Compared with buprenorphine monotherapy, the combined buprenorphine and naloxone product was an acceptable alternative pharmacologic treatment for opioid use disorder during pregnancy.

Prenatal care, pregnancy outcomes, and postpartum birth control plans among pregnant women with opiate addictions.

OBJECTIVES: To describe how effectively we provided adequate prenatal care and postpartum contraception to prevent repeat, unintended pregnancies to women using opiates or medication maintenance therapy (MMT) during pregnancy. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective chart review of 94 women using opiates or MMT during 96 pregnancies while receiving prenatal care in the regional high-risk maternity care clinic between July 2010 and June 2012. We examined prenatal care usage, birth outcomes, and postpartum contraception using χ(2), Kruskal-Wallis, and binary logistic regression modeling. RESULTS: Patients were predominately white (93.6%), multiparous (75.5%), and in their 20s; 71 (74%) used MMT and 25 (26%) used prescribed or illicit opiates. Fewer than half (44% [46.2%]) received any documented prenatal counseling about postpartum contraception. Sixteen (17%) babies were premature. Sixty-four (66.7%) infants were diagnosed as having neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS). Only 42 (43.8%) women attended their postpartum visits. Overall, 60 (62.5%) women received postpartum contraception. The only significant predictors of postpartum contraception use were preterm birth and postpartum appointment attendance. CONCLUSIONS: Alternative strategies for providing postpartum care should be explored because women using opiates or MMT during pregnancy are significantly more likely to use postpartum contraception if they attend their postpartum appointments.