Mapping Glasgow Coma scale to AVPU scores among adults in the prehospital setting.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a translation between the Glasgow Come Scale and the Alert-Verbal-Pain-Unresponsive (AVPU) scale among adults with out-of-hospital emergencies. METHODS: We performed a retrospective analysis of adults (≥18 years) from the 2022 National Emergency Medical Services (EMS) Information System with a ground scene encounter with a concurrently documented GCS and AVPU assessment. Using a training partition of 2.5 million encounters, we performed a grid search to identify all combinations of mutually exclusive cutpoints which divided the GCS into four segments. We identified the combination with the highest Kappa statistic and reported metrics of performance in this sample in the test partition. RESULTS: We identified 16,321,299 encounters with a concurrent AVPU and GCS. Using the AVPU scale, 93.3 % were classified as Alert; 2.9 % as Verbal; 1.5 % as Pain; and 2.3 % as Unresponsive. Using a grid-based search, optimal cutpoints were identified when using a GCS of 14-15 for Alert, 10-13 for Verbal, 7-9 for Pain, and 3-6 for Unresponsive. Cohen's Kappa was 0.63 in the test partition, indicating substantial agreement. Intraclass F1 score varied across different alertness levels and were 0.97 for "Alert", 0.43 for "Verbal", 0.49 for "Pain", and 0.83 for "Unresponsive". Findings were similar in analyses performed by age group and by the presence or absence of trauma. CONCLUSION: We report an optimal crosswalk between the AVPU and GCS scales. Performance in the Verbal and Pain categories was lower than the Alert and Unresponsive categories. These findings may facilitate clinician handovers between EMS and non-EMS clinicians.

Characteristics and Trends of Prehospital Encounters for Opioid Overdoses Among US Youth, 2018-2022.

This cross-sectional study analyzes characteristics of prehospital encounters for youth opioid overdoses and trends before and during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Establishing thresholds for shock index in children to identify major trauma.

BACKGROUND: An abnormal shock index (SI) is associated with greater injury severity among children with trauma. We sought to empirically-derive age-adjusted SI cutpoints associated with major trauma in children, and to compare the accuracy of these cutpoints to existing criteria for pediatric SI. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study using the 2021 National Trauma Data Bank (NTDB) Participant Use File. We included injured children (<18 years), excluding patients with traumatic arrests, mechanical ventilation upon hospital presentation, and inter-facility transfers. Our outcome was major trauma defined by the standardized triage assessment tool (STAT) criteria. Our exposure of interest was the SI. We empirically-derived upper and lower cutpoints for the SI using age-adjusted Z-scores. We compared the performance of these to the SI, pediatric-adjusted (SIPA), and the Pediatric SI (PSI). We validated the performance of the cutpoints in the 2019 NTDB. RESULTS: We included 64,326 and 64,316 children in the derivation and validation samples, of whom 4.9 % (derivation) and 4.0 % (validation) experienced major trauma. The empirically-derived age-adjusted SI cutpoints had a sensitivity of 43.2 % and a specificity of 79.4 % for major trauma in the validation sample. The sensitivity of the PSI for major trauma was 33.9 %, with a specificity of 90.7 % among children 1-17 years of age. The sensitivity of the SIPA was 37.4 %, with a specificity of 87.8 % among children 4-16 years of age. Evaluated using logistic regression, patients with an elevated age-adjusted SI had 3.97 greater odds (95 % confidence interval [CI] 3.63-4.33) of major trauma compared to those with a normal age-adjusted SI. Patients with a depressed SI had 1.55 greater odds (95 % CI 1.36-1.78) of major trauma. The area under the receiver operator characteristic curve (AUROC) for the empirically-derived model (0.62, 95 % CI 0.61-0.63) was similar to the AUROC for PSI (0.62, 95 % CI 0.61-0.63); both of which were greater than the SIPA model (0.58, 95 % CI 0.57-0.59). CONCLUSION: Age-adjusted SI cutpoints demonstrated a mild gain in sensitivity compared to existing measures. However, our findings suggest that the SI alone has a limited role in the identification of major trauma in children.

External validation of two clinical prediction models for pediatric pneumonia.

OBJECTIVE: To externally validate two prediction models for pediatric radiographic pneumonia. METHODS: We prospectively evaluated the performance of two prediction models (Pneumonia Risk Score [PRS] and CARPE DIEM models) from a prospective convenience sample of children 90 days - 18 years of age from a pediatric emergency department undergoing chest radiography for suspected pneumonia between January 1, 2022, to December 31st, 2023. We evaluated model performance using the original intercepts and coefficients and evaluated for performance changes when performing recalibration and re-estimation procedures. RESULTS: We included 202 patients (median age 3 years, IQR 1-6 years), of whom radiographic pneumonia was found in 92 (41.0%). The PRS model had an area under the receiver operator characteristic curve of 0.72 (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.64-0.79), which was higher than the CARPE DIEM (0.59; 95% CI 0.51-0.67) (P<0.01). Using optimal cutpoints, the PRS model showed higher sensitivity (65.2%, 95% CI 54.6-74.9) and specificity (72.7%, 95% CI 63.4-80.8) compared to the CARPE DIEM model (sensitivity 56.5 [95% CI 45.8-66.8]; specificity 60.9 [95% CI 50.2-69.2]). Recalibration and re-estimation of models improved performance, particularly for the CARPE DIEM model, with gains in sensitivity and specificity, and improved calibration. CONCLUSION: The PRS model demonstrated better performance than the CARPE DIEM model in predicting radiographic pneumonia. Among children with a high rate of pneumonia, these models did not reach a level of performance sufficient to be used independently of clinical judgement. These findings highlight the need for further validation and improvement of models to enhance their utility.

A randomized, embedded, pragmatic, Bayesian clinical trial examining clinical decision support for high flow nasal cannula management in children with bronchiolitis: design and statistical analysis plan.

BACKGROUND: High flow nasal cannula (HFNC) has been increasingly adopted in the past 2 decades as a mode of respiratory support for children hospitalized with bronchiolitis. The growing use of HFNC despite a paucity of high-quality data regarding the therapy's efficacy has led to concerns about overutilization. We developed an electronic health record (EHR) embedded, quality improvement (QI) oriented clinical trial to determine whether standardized management of HFNC weaning guided by clinical decision support (CDS) results in a reduction in the duration of HFNC compared to usual care for children with bronchiolitis. METHODS: The design and summary of the statistical analysis plan for the REspiratory SupporT for Efficient and cost-Effective Care (REST EEC; "rest easy") trial are presented. The investigators hypothesize that CDS-coupled, standardized HFNC weaning will reduce the duration of HFNC, the trial's primary endpoint, for children with bronchiolitis compared to usual care. Data supporting trial design and eventual analyses are collected from the EHR and other real world data sources using existing informatics infrastructure and QI data sources. The trial workflow, including randomization and deployment of the intervention, is embedded within the EHR of a large children's hospital using existing vendor features. Trial simulations indicate that by assuming a true hazard ratio effect size of 1.27, equivalent to a 6-h reduction in the median duration of HFNC, and enrolling a maximum of 350 children, there will be a > 0.75 probability of declaring superiority (interim analysis posterior probability of intervention effect > 0.99 or final analysis posterior probability of intervention effect > 0.9) and a > 0.85 probability of declaring superiority or the CDS intervention showing promise (final analysis posterior probability of intervention effect > 0.8). Iterative plan-do-study-act cycles are used to monitor the trial and provide targeted education to the workforce. DISCUSSION: Through incorporation of the trial into usual care workflows, relying on QI tools and resources to support trial conduct, and relying on Bayesian inference to determine whether the intervention is superior to usual care, REST EEC is a learning health system intervention that blends health system operations with active evidence generation to optimize the use of HFNC and associated patient outcomes. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05909566. Registered on June 18, 2023.

Comparing AVPU and Glasgow Coma Scales Among Children Seen by Emergency Medical Services.

OBJECTIVES: Consciousness assessment is an important component in the prehospital care of ill or injured children. Both the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) and the Alert, Verbal, Pain, Unresponsive (AVPU) scale are used for this purpose. We sought to identify cut points for the GCS to correspond to the AVPU scale for pediatric emergency medical services (EMS) encounters. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective cross-sectional analysis using the 2019-2022 National EMS Information System data set, including children (<18 years) with a GCS and AVPU score. We evaluated several approaches to develop cut points for the GCS within the AVPU scale and reported measures of performance. RESULTS: Of 6 186 663 pediatric encounters, 4 311 598 with both GCS and AVPU documentation were included (median age was 10 years [interquartile range 3-15]; 50.9% boys). Lower AVPU scores correlated with life-sustaining procedures, including those for airway management, seizure, and cardiac arrest. Optimal GCS cut points obtained via a grid-based search were 14 to 15 for alert, 11 to 13 for verbal, 7 to 10 for pain, and 3 to 6 for unresponsive. Overall accuracy was 0.95, with kappa of 0.61. Intraclass F1 statistics were lower for verbal (0.37) and pain (0.50) categories compared with alert (0.98) and unresponsive (0.78). CONCLUSIONS: We developed a cross-walking between the AVPU and GCS scales. Overall performance was high, though performance within the verbal and pain categories was lower. These findings can be useful to enhance clinician handovers and to aid in the development of EMS-based prediction models.

Preferences for Management of Pediatric Pneumonia: A Clinician Survey of Artificially Generated Patient Cases.

BACKGROUND: It is unknown which factors are associated with chest radiograph (CXR) and antibiotic use for suspected community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in children. We evaluated factors associated with CXR and antibiotic preferences among clinicians for children with suspected CAP using case scenarios generated through artificial intelligence (AI). METHODS: We performed a survey of general pediatric, pediatric emergency medicine, and emergency medicine attending physicians employed by a private physician contractor. Respondents were given 5 unique, AI-generated case scenarios. We used generalized estimating equations to identify factors associated with CXR and antibiotic use. We evaluated the cluster-weighted correlation between clinician suspicion and clinical prediction model risk estimates for CAP using 2 predictive models. RESULTS: A total of 172 respondents provided responses to 839 scenarios. Factors associated with CXR acquisition (OR, [95% CI]) included presence of crackles (4.17 [2.19, 7.95]), prior pneumonia (2.38 [1.32, 4.20]), chest pain (1.90 [1.18, 3.05]) and fever (1.82 [1.32, 2.52]). The decision to use antibiotics before knowledge of CXR results included past hospitalization for pneumonia (4.24 [1.88, 9.57]), focal decreased breath sounds (3.86 [1.98, 7.52]), and crackles (3.45 [2.15, 5.53]). After revealing CXR results to clinicians, these results were the sole predictor associated with antibiotic decision-making. Suspicion for CAP correlated with one of 2 prediction models for CAP (Spearman's rho = 0.25). Factors associated with a greater suspicion of pneumonia included prior pneumonia, duration of illness, worsening course of illness, shortness of breath, vomiting, decreased oral intake or urinary output, respiratory distress, head nodding, focal decreased breath sounds, focal rhonchi, fever, and crackles, and lower pulse oximetry. CONCLUSIONS: Ordering preferences for CXRs demonstrated similarities and differences with evidence-based risk models for CAP. Clinicians relied heavily on CXR findings to guide antibiotic ordering. These findings can be used within decision support systems to promote evidence-based management practices for pediatric CAP.

Mapping Prehospital Clinician Impression to Hospital-Based Diagnoses in Children Transported to the Hospital by Emergency Medical Services.

OBJECTIVES: Emergency medical services (EMS) serves a critical role in the delivery of services to children with out-of-hospital emergencies. The EMS clinicians' initial field diagnoses, termed "impressions," facilitate focused patient assessments, guide the application of prehospital treatment protocols, and help determine transport destination. We sought to evaluate the concordance of the EMS clinician impression to a child's hospital-based diagnosis. METHODS: We retrospectively studied de-identified pediatric (<18 years old) scene runs transported to the hospital and with available linked hospital data from the 2021 ESO Data Collaborative, a multi-agency prehospital electronic health record dataset. EMS impressions and primary emergency department or admission-based diagnoses were categorized into one of twenty-one major groups in the Diagnosis Grouping System. We identified the most common hospital-based discharge diagnoses and evaluated for the agreement between EMS impression and hospital-based diagnosis using Cohen's Kappa statistic. RESULTS: We included 35,833 pediatric transports from the scene with linked prehospital and in-hospital data (median age 11 years, interquartile range, 3-15 years; 50.9% male). The most common categories for both EMS impressions and hospital-based diagnoses were as follows respectively: trauma (26.1%; 24.6%), neurologic diseases (18.9%; 16.4%), psychiatric and behavioral diseases and substance use disorder (11.8%; 11.6%), and respiratory diseases (11.1% and 9.5%). A total of 23,224 out of 35,833 patients, or 64.8%, had concordant EMS impressions and hospital-based diagnoses. There was high agreement between common EMS impression and in-hospital diagnoses (trauma 77.3%; neurologic diseases 70.3%; respiratory diseases 64.5%; and psychiatric, behavioral disease and substance use disorder 73.9%). Hospital-based diagnoses demonstrated moderate concordance with prehospital data (Cohen's κ = 0.59). CONCLUSIONS: We found moderate concordance between EMS primary impression and hospital diagnoses. The EMS encounter is brief and without capabilities of advanced testing, but initial impressions may influence the basis of the triage assignment and interventions during the hospital-based encounter. By evaluating EMS impressions and ultimate hospital diagnoses, pediatric protocols may be streamlined, and specific training emphasized in pursuit of improving patient outcomes. Future work is needed to examine instances of discordance and evaluate the impact on patient care and outcomes.

Children's Hospital Resource Utilization During the 2022 Viral Respiratory Surge.

OBJECTIVES: Multiple viral respiratory epidemics occurred concurrently in 2022 but their true extent is unclear. To aid future surge planning efforts, we compared epidemiology and resource utilization with prepandemic viral respiratory seasons in 38 US children's hospitals. METHODS: We performed a serial cross-sectional study from October 2017 to March 2023. We counted daily emergency department (ED), inpatient, and ICU volumes; daily surgeries; viral tests performed; the proportion of ED visits resulting in revisit within 3 days; and proportion of hospitalizations with a 30-day readmission. We evaluated seasonal resource utilization peaks using hierarchical Poisson models. RESULTS: Peak volumes in the 2022 season were 4% lower (95% confidence interval [CI] -6 to -2) in the ED, not significantly different in the inpatient unit (-1%, 95% CI -4 to 2), and 8% lower in the ICU (95% CI -14 to -3) compared with each hospital's previous peak season. However, for 18 of 38 hospitals, their highest ED and inpatient volumes occurred in 2022. The 2022 season was longer in duration than previous seasons (P < .02). Peak daily surgeries decreased by 15% (95% CI -20 to -9) in 2022 compared with previous peaks. Viral tests increased 75% (95% CI 69-82) in 2022 from previous peaks. Revisits and readmissions were lowest in 2022. CONCLUSIONS: Peak ED, inpatient, and ICU volumes were not significantly different in the 2022 viral respiratory season compared with earlier seasons, but half of hospitals reached their highest volumes. Research on how surges impact boarding, transfer refusals, and patient outcomes is needed as regionalization reduces pediatric capacity.

The Shock Index among Children Presenting to the Emergency Department: Analysis of Nationally Representative Sample.

BACKGROUND: The Shock Index (SI) is emerging as a potentially useful measure among children with injury or suspected sepsis. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to evaluate the distribution of the SI and evaluate its association with clinical outcomes among all children presenting to the emergency department (ED). METHODS: A complex survey of nonfederal U.S. ED encounters from 2016 through 2021 was analyzed. Among children, the Pediatric Age-Adjusted Shock Index (SIPA), Pediatric Shock Index (PSI), and the Temperature- and Age-Adjusted Shock Index (TAMSI) were analyzed. The association of these criteria with disposition, acuity, medication administration, diagnoses and procedures was analyzed. RESULTS: A survey-weighted 81.5 million ED visits were included for children aged 4-16 years and 117.2 million visits were included for children aged 1-12 years. SI could be calculated for 78.6% of patients aged 4-16 years and 57.9% of patients aged 1-12 years. An abnormal SI was present in 15.9%, 11.1%, and 31.7% when using the SIPA, PSI, and TAMSI, respectively. With all criteria, an elevated SI was associated with greater hospitalization. The SIPA and PSI were associated with triage acuity. All criteria were associated with medical interventions, including provision of IV fluids and acquisition of blood cultures. CONCLUSIONS: An elevated SI is indicative of greater resource utilization needs among children in the ED. When using any criteria, an elevated SI was associated with clinically important outcomes. Further research is required to evaluate the distribution of the SI in children and to investigate its potential role within existing triage algorithms for children in the ED.

Pediatric Vital Signs Documentation in a Nationally Representative US Emergency Department Sample.

OBJECTIVES: Vital sign measurement and interpretation are essential components of assessment in the emergency department. We sought to assess the completeness of vital signs documentation (defined as a temperature, heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure, and oxygen saturation) in a nationally representative sample of children presenting to the emergency department, characterize abnormal vital signs using pediatric advanced life support (PALS) criteria, and evaluate their association with hospitalization or transfer. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective, cross-sectional study using the 2016-2021 National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey. We evaluated the proportion of children (aged ≤15 years) with complete vital signs and identified characteristics associated with complete vital signs documentation. We assessed the proportion of children having abnormal vital signs when using PALS criteria. RESULTS: We included 162.7 million survey-weighted pediatric encounters. Complete vital signs documentation was present in 50.8% of encounters. Older age and patient acuity were associated with vital signs documentation. Abnormal vital signs were documented in 73.0% of encounters with complete vital signs and were associated with younger age and hospitalization or transfer. Abnormal vital signs were associated with increased odds of hospitalization or transfer (odds ratio 1.51, 95% confidence interval 1.11-2.04). Elevated heart rate and respiratory rate were associated with hospitalization or transfer. CONCLUSIONS: A low proportion of children have documentation of complete vital signs, highlighting areas in need of improvement to better align with pediatric readiness quality initiatives. A high proportion of children had abnormal vital signs using PALS criteria. Few abnormalities were associated with hospitalization or transfer.

Association Between the COI and Excess Health Care Utilization and Costs for ACSC.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The authors of previous work have associated the Childhood Opportunity Index (COI) with increased hospitalizations for ambulatory care sensitive conditions (ACSC). The burden of this inequity on the health care system is unknown. We sought to understand health care resource expenditure in terms of excess hospitalizations, hospital days, and cost. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cross-sectional study of the Pediatric Health Information Systems database, including inpatient hospitalizations between January 1, 2016 and December 31, 2022 for children <18 years of age. We compared ACSC hospitalizations, mortality, and cost across COI strata. RESULTS: We identified 2 870 121 hospitalizations among 1 969 934 children, of which 44.5% (1 277 568/2 870 121) were for ACSCs. A total of 49.1% (331 083/674 548) of hospitalizations in the very low stratum were potentially preventable, compared with 39.7% (222 037/559 003) in the very high stratum (P < .001). After adjustment, lower COI was associated with higher odds of potentially preventable hospitalization (odds ratio 1.18, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.17-1.19). Compared with the very high COI stratum, there were a total of 137 550 (95% CI 134 582-140 517) excess hospitalizations across all other strata, resulting in an excess cost of $1.3 billion (95% CI $1.28-1.35 billion). Compared with the very high COI stratum, there were 813 (95% CI 758-871) excess deaths, with >95% from the very low and low COI strata. CONCLUSIONS: Children with lower neighborhood opportunity have increased risk of ACSC hospitalizations. The COI may identify communities in which targeted intervention could reduce health care utilization and costs.

Comparing the performance of pediatric weight estimation methods.

BACKGROUND: Weight estimation is essential in the care of ill children when a weight cannot be obtained. This is particularly important for children with medical complexity, who are at higher risk for adverse drug events. Our objective was to compare the accuracy of different methods of weight estimation in children and stratify by the presence of medical complexity. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cross-sectional study of children (<18 years) seen in the emergency department (ED) or ambulatory clinic from January 1, 2013 to December 31, 2022 at a tertiary academic pediatric center. We compared the performance of nine age-based formulae and two length-based methods using metrics of mean average error (MAE), root mean square error (RMSE), and agreement within 10% and 20% of measured weight. We additionally evaluated the approaches stratified by body mass index (BMI) and the presence of medical complexity. RESULTS: Of 361,755 children (median age 8.2 years, IQR 2.5-14.2 years; 51.5% male), 59,283 (16.4%) were seen in the ED. Length was measured or available in 21,330 (36.0%) patients in the ED and 293,410 (97%) patients in clinics. The Broselow tape outperformed all methods, with 50.7% estimates within 10% of measured weight, 80.0% estimates within 20% of measured weight, the lowest MAE (2.5 kg), and lowest RMSE (4.5 kg). The Antevy formula was the most accurate age-based formula, with 49.2% estimates within 10% of measured weight, 80.1% estimates within 20% of measured weight, MAE of 2.8 kg, and RMSE of 4.7 kg. Estimates became less accurate as BMI and estimated weight increased for all methods. Among children with medical complexity (14.1%), the Broselow tape consistently outperformed age-based formulae, with 47.7% estimates within 10% of measured weight, 77.1% estimates within 20% of measured weight, MAE of 2.6 kg, and RMSE of 5.4 kg. The Antevy formula remained the most accurate age-based method among children with medical complexity. CONCLUSION: The Broselow tape predicted weight most accurately in this large sample of children, including among those with medical complexity. The Antevy formula is the most accurate age-based method for pediatric weight estimation.

New Morbidities During Critical Illness and Associated Risk of ICU Readmission: Virtual Pediatric Systems Cohort, 2017-2020.

OBJECTIVES: To describe change in Functional Status Scale (FSS) associated with critical illness and assess associated development of new morbidities with PICU readmission. DESIGN: Retrospective, cross-sectional cohort study using the Virtual Pediatric Systems (VPS; Los Angeles, CA) database. SETTING: One hundred twenty-six U.S. PICUs participating in VPS. SUBJECTS: Children younger than 21 years old admitted 2017-2020 and followed to December 2022. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Among 40,654 patients, 86.2% were classified as having good function or mild dysfunction before illness. Most patients did not have a change in their FSS category during hospitalization. Survival with new morbidity occurred most in children with baseline good/mild dysfunction (8.7%). Hospital mortality increased across categories of baseline dysfunction. Of 39,701 survivors, 14.2% were readmitted within 1 year. Median time to readmission was 159 days. In multivariable, mixed-effects Cox modeling, time to readmission was most associated with discharge functional status (hazard ratio [HR], 5.3 [95% CI, 4.6-6.1] for those with very severe dysfunction), and associated with lower hazard in those who survived with new morbidity (HR, 0.7 [95% CI, 0.6-0.7]). CONCLUSIONS: Development of new morbidities occurs commonly in pediatric critical illness, but we failed to find an association with greater hazard of PICU readmission. Instead, patient functional status is associated with hazard of PICU readmission.

Survival After Intra-Arrest Transport vs On-Scene Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation in Children.

Importance: For pediatric out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA), emergency medical services (EMS) may elect to transport to the hospital during active cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) (ie, intra-arrest transport) or to continue on-scene CPR for the entirety of the resuscitative effort. The comparative effectiveness of these strategies is unclear. Objective: To evaluate the association between intra-arrest transport compared with continued on-scene CPR and survival after pediatric OHCA, and to determine whether this association differs based on the timing of intra-arrest transport. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study included pediatric patients aged younger than 18 years with EMS-treated OHCA between December 1, 2005 and June 30, 2015. Data were collected from the Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium Epidemiologic Registry, a prospective 10-site OHCA registry in the US and Canada. Data analysis was performed from May 2022 to February 2024. Exposures: Intra-arrest transport, defined as an initiation of transport prior to the return of spontaneous circulation, and the interval between EMS arrival and intra-arrest transport. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was survival to hospital discharge. Patients who underwent intra-arrest transport at any given minute after EMS arrival were compared with patients who were at risk of undergoing intra-arrest transport within the same minute using time-dependent propensity scores calculated from patient demographics, arrest characteristics, and EMS interventions. We examined subgroups based on age (<1 year vs ≥1 year). Results: Of 2854 eligible pediatric patients (median [IQR] age, 1 [0-9] years); 1691 males [59.3%]) who experienced OHCA between December 2005 and June 2015, 1892 children (66.3%) were treated with intra-arrest transport and 962 children (33.7%) received continued on-scene CPR. The median (IQR) time between EMS arrival and intra-arrest transport was 15 (9-22) minutes. In the propensity score-matched cohort (3680 matched cases), there was no significant difference in survival to hospital discharge between the intra-arrest transport group and the continued on-scene CPR group (87 of 1840 patients [4.7%] vs 95 of 1840 patients [5.2%]; risk ratio [RR], 0.81 [95% CI, 0.59-1.10]). Survival to hospital discharge was not modified by the timing of intra-arrest transport (P value for the interaction between intra-arrest transport and time to matching = .10). Among patients aged younger than 1 year, intra-arrest transport was associated with lower survival to hospital discharge (RR, 0.52; 95% CI, 0.33-0.83) but there was no association for children aged 1 year or older (RR, 1.22; 95% CI, 0.77-1.93). Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study of a North American OHCA registry, intra-arrest transport compared with continued on-scene CPR was not associated with survival to hospital discharge among children with OHCA. However, intra-arrest transport was associated with a lower likelihood of survival to hospital discharge among children aged younger than 1 year.

Centiles for the shock index among injured children in the prehospital setting.

OBJECTIVE: The shock index (SI), the ratio of heart rate to systolic blood pressure, is a clinical tool for assessing injury severity. Age-adjusted SI models may improve predictive value for injured children in the out-of-hospital setting. We sought to characterize the proportion of children in the prehospital setting with an abnormal SI using established criteria, describe the age-based distribution of SI among injured children, and determine prehospital interventions by SI. METHODS: We performed a multi-agency retrospective cross-sectional study of children (<18 years) in the prehospital setting with a scene encounter for suspected trauma and transported to the hospital between 2018 and 2022 using the National Emergency Medical Services (EMS) Information System datasets. Our exposure of interest was the first calculated SI. We identified the proportion of children with an abnormal SI when using the SI, pediatric age-adjusted (SIPA); and the pediatric SI (PSI) criteria. We developed and internally validated an age-based distributional model for the SI using generalized additive models for location, scale, and shape to describe the age-based distribution of the SI as a centile or Z-score. We evaluated EMS interventions (basic airway interventions, advanced airway interventions, cardiac interventions, vascular access, intravenous fluids, and vasopressor use) in relation to both the SIPA, PSI, and distributional SI values. RESULTS: We analyzed 1,007,863 pediatric EMS trauma encounters (55.0% male, median age 13 years [IQR, 8-16 years]). The most common dispatch complaint was for traffic/transport related injury (32.9%). When using the PSI and SIPA, 13.1% and 16.3% were classified as having an abnormal SI, respectively. There were broad differences in the percentage of encounters classified as having an abnormal SI across the age range, varying from 5.1 to 22.8% for SIPA and 3.7-20.1% for PSI. The SIPA values ranged from the 75th to 95th centiles, while the PSI corresponded to an SI greater than the 90th centile, except in older children. The centile distribution for SI declined during early childhood and stabilized during adolescence and demonstrated a difference of <0.1% at cutoff values. An abnormal PSI, SIPA and higher SI centiles (>90th centile and >95th centiles) were associated with interventions related to basic and advanced airway management, cardiac procedures, vascular access, and provision of intravenous fluids occurred with greater frequency at higher SI centiles. Some procedures, including airway management and vascular access, had a smaller peak at lower (<10th) centiles. DISCUSSION: We describe the empiric distribution of the pediatric SI across the age range, which may overcome limitations of extant criteria in identifying patients with shock in the prehospital setting. Both high and low SI values were associated with important, potentially lifesaving EMS interventions. Future work may allow for more precise identification of children with significant injury using cutpoint analysis paired to outcome-based criteria. These may additionally be combined with other physiologic and mechanistic criteria to assist in triage decisions.

The association of prehospital systemic corticosteroids with emergency department and in-hospital outcomes for patients with asthma exacerbations.

BACKGROUND: Timely administration of systemic corticosteroids is a cornerstone of asthma exacerbation treatment, yet little is known regarding potential benefits of prehospital administration by emergency medical services (EMS) clinicians. We examined factors associated with prehospital corticosteroid administration with hospitalization and hospital length of stay (LOS). METHODS: We performed a retrospective study of EMS encounters for patients 2-50 years of age with suspected asthma exacerbation from a national data set. We evaluated factors associated with systemic corticosteroid administration using generalized estimating equations. We performed propensity matching based on service level, age, encounter duration, vital signs, and treatments to evaluate the association of prehospital corticosteroid administration with hospitalization and LOS using weighted logistic regression. We evaluated the association of prehospital corticosteroid administration with admission using Bayesian models. RESULTS: Of 15,834 encounters, 4731 (29.9%) received prehospital systemic corticosteroids. Administration of corticosteroids was associated with older age; sex; urbanicity; advanced life support provider; vital sign instability; increasing doses of albuterol; and provision of ipratropium bromide, magnesium, epinephrine, and supplementary oxygen. Within the matched sample, prehospital corticosteroids were not associated with hospitalization (odds ratio [OR] 0.86, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.73-1.01) or LOS (multiplier 0.76, 95% CI 0.56-1.05). Administration of corticosteroids was associated with lower odds of admission and shorter LOS in longer EMS encounters (>34 min), lower admission odds in patients with documented wheezing, and shorter LOS among patients treated with albuterol. In a Bayesian model with noninformative priors, the OR for admission among encounters given corticosteroids was 0.86 (95% credible interval 0.77-0.96). CONCLUSIONS: Prehospital systemic corticosteroid administration was not associated with hospitalization or LOS in the overall cohort of asthma patients treated by EMS, though they had a lower probability of admission within Bayesian models. Improved outcomes were noted among subgroups of longer EMS encounters, documented wheezing, and receipt of albuterol.

Measures of Patient Acuity Among Children Encountered by Emergency Medical Services by the Child Opportunity Index.

Background: Children have differing utilization of emergency medical services (EMS) by socioeconomic status. We evaluated differences in prehospital care among children by the Child Opportunity Index (COI), the agreement between a child's COI at the scene and at home, and in-hospital outcomes for children by COI. Methods: We performed a retrospective study of pediatric (<18 years) scene encounters from approximately 2,000 United States EMS agencies from the 2021-2022 ESO Data Collaborative. We evaluated socioeconomic status using the multi-dimensional COI v2.0 at the scene. We described EMS interventions and in-hospital outcomes by COI categories using ordinal regression. We evaluated the agreement between the home and scene COI. Results: Data were available for 99.8% of pediatric scene runs, with 936,940 included EMS responses. Children from lower COI areas more frequently had a response occurring at home (62.9% in Very Low COI areas; 47.1% in Very High COI areas). Children from higher COI areas were more frequently not transported to the hospital (odds ratio [OR] 0.87, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.86-0.87). Children in lower COI areas had lower use of physical (OR 1.23, 95% CI 1.13-1.33) and chemical (OR 1.41, 95% CI 1.29-1.55) restraints for behavioral health problems. Among injured children with elevated pain scores (≥7), analgesia was provided more frequently to children in higher COI areas (OR 1.73, 95% CI 1.65-1.81). The proportion of children in cardiac arrest was lowest from higher COI areas. Among 107,114 encounters with in-hospital data, the odds of hospitalization was higher among children from higher COI areas (OR 1.14, 95% CI 1.11-1.18) and was lower for in-hospital mortality (OR 0.75, 95% CI 0.65-0.85). Home and scene COI had a strong agreement (Kendall's W = 0.81). Conclusion: Patterns of EMS utilization among children with prehospital emergencies differ by COI. Some measures, such as for in-hospital mortality, occurred more frequently among children transported from Very Low COI areas, whereas others, such as admission, occurred more frequently among children from Very High COI areas. These findings have implications in EMS planning and in alternative out-of-hospital care models, including in regional placement of ambulance stations.

Pediatric Utilization of Emergency Medical Services from Outpatient Offices and Urgent Care Centers.

OBJECTIVE: National efforts have highlighted the need for pediatric emergency readiness across all settings where children receive care. Outpatient offices and urgent care centers are frequent starting points for acutely injured and ill children, emphasizing the need to maintain pediatric readiness in these settings. We aimed to characterize emergency medical services (EMS) utilization from outpatient offices and urgent care centers to better understand pediatric readiness needs. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cross-sectional analysis of EMS encounters using the National Emergency Medical Services Information System, a nationally representative EMS registry (2019-2022). We included four years of EMS encounters of children (<18 years old) that originated from an outpatient office or urgent care center. We described characteristics, including patient demographics, prehospital clinician impression, therapies, and procedures performed. RESULTS: Of 179,854,336 EMS encounters during the study period, 164,387 pediatric encounters originated at an outpatient setting. Most EMS encounters originated from outpatient offices. Evening and weekend EMS encounters more frequently originated from urgent care centers. The most common impressions were respiratory distress (n = 60,716), systemic illness (n = 23,583), and psychiatric/behavioral health (n = 13,273). Ninety-four percent of EMS encounters resulted in transportation to a hospital. CONCLUSIONS: EMS encounters from outpatient settings most commonly originate from outpatient offices, relative to urgent care settings, where pediatric emergency readiness may be limited. It is important that outpatient settings and providers are ready for varied emergencies, including those occurring for a behavioral health concern, and that readiness guidelines are updated to address these needs.