FTO-dependent demethylation of N6-methyladenosine regulates mRNA splicing and is required for adipogenesis.

The role of Fat Mass and Obesity-associated protein (FTO) and its substrate N6-methyladenosine (m6A) in mRNA processing and adipogenesis remains largely unknown. We show that FTO expression and m6A levels are inversely correlated during adipogenesis. FTO depletion blocks differentiation and only catalytically active FTO restores adipogenesis. Transcriptome analyses in combination with m6A-seq revealed that gene expression and mRNA splicing of grouped genes are regulated by FTO. M6A is enriched in exonic regions flanking 5'- and 3'-splice sites, spatially overlapping with mRNA splicing regulatory serine/arginine-rich (SR) protein exonic splicing enhancer binding regions. Enhanced levels of m6A in response to FTO depletion promotes the RNA binding ability of SRSF2 protein, leading to increased inclusion of target exons. FTO controls exonic splicing of adipogenic regulatory factor RUNX1T1 by regulating m6A levels around splice sites and thereby modulates differentiation. These findings provide compelling evidence that FTO-dependent m6A demethylation functions as a novel regulatory mechanism of RNA processing and plays a critical role in the regulation of adipogenesis.

TRF2 and lamin A/C interact to facilitate the functional organization of chromosome ends.

Telomeres protect the ends of linear genomes, and the gradual loss of telomeres is associated with cellular ageing. Telomere protection involves the insertion of the 3' overhang facilitated by telomere repeat-binding factor 2 (TRF2) into telomeric DNA, forming t-loops. We present evidence suggesting that t-loops can also form at interstitial telomeric sequences in a TRF2-dependent manner, forming an interstitial t-loop (ITL). We demonstrate that TRF2 association with interstitial telomeric sequences is stabilized by co-localization with A-type lamins (lamin A/C). We also find that lamin A/C interacts with TRF2 and that reduction in levels of lamin A/C or mutations in LMNA that cause an autosomal dominant premature ageing disorder--Hutchinson Gilford Progeria Syndrome (HGPS)-lead to reduced ITL formation and telomere loss. We propose that cellular and organismal ageing are intertwined through the effects of the interaction between TRF2 and lamin A/C on chromosome structure.

Ago2 facilitates Rad51 recruitment and DNA double-strand break repair by homologous recombination.

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are highly cytotoxic lesions and pose a major threat to genome stability if not properly repaired. We and others have previously shown that a class of DSB-induced small RNAs (diRNAs) is produced from sequences around DSB sites. DiRNAs are associated with Argonaute (Ago) proteins and play an important role in DSB repair, though the mechanism through which they act remains unclear. Here, we report that the role of diRNAs in DSB repair is restricted to repair by homologous recombination (HR) and that it specifically relies on the effector protein Ago2 in mammalian cells. Interestingly, we show that Ago2 forms a complex with Rad51 and that the interaction is enhanced in cells treated with ionizing radiation. We demonstrate that Rad51 accumulation at DSB sites and HR repair depend on catalytic activity and small RNA-binding capability of Ago2. In contrast, DSB resection as well as RPA and Mre11 loading is unaffected by Ago2 or Dicer depletion, suggesting that Ago2 very likely functions directly in mediating Rad51 accumulation at DSBs. Taken together, our findings suggest that guided by diRNAs, Ago2 can promote Rad51 recruitment and/or retention at DSBs to facilitate repair by HR.

Mammalian WTAP is a regulatory subunit of the RNA N6-methyladenosine methyltransferase.

The methyltransferase like 3 (METTL3)-containing methyltransferase complex catalyzes the N6-methyladenosine (m6A) formation, a novel epitranscriptomic marker; however, the nature of this complex remains largely unknown. Here we report two new components of the human m6A methyltransferase complex, Wilms' tumor 1-associating protein (WTAP) and methyltransferase like 14 (METTL14). WTAP interacts with METTL3 and METTL14, and is required for their localization into nuclear speckles enriched with pre-mRNA processing factors and for catalytic activity of the m6A methyltransferase in vivo. The majority of RNAs bound by WTAP and METTL3 in vivo represent mRNAs containing the consensus m6A motif. In the absence of WTAP, the RNA-binding capability of METTL3 is strongly reduced, suggesting that WTAP may function to regulate recruitment of the m6A methyltransferase complex to mRNA targets. Furthermore, transcriptomic analyses in combination with photoactivatable-ribonucleoside-enhanced crosslinking and immunoprecipitation (PAR-CLIP) illustrate that WTAP and METTL3 regulate expression and alternative splicing of genes involved in transcription and RNA processing. Morpholino-mediated knockdown targeting WTAP and/or METTL3 in zebrafish embryos caused tissue differentiation defects and increased apoptosis. These findings provide strong evidence that WTAP may function as a regulatory subunit in the m6A methyltransferase complex and play a critical role in epitranscriptomic regulation of RNA metabolism.

Redox-active quinones induces genome-wide DNA methylation changes by an iron-mediated and Tet-dependent mechanism.

DNA methylation has been proven to be a critical epigenetic mark important for various cellular processes. Here, we report that redox-active quinones, a ubiquitous class of chemicals found in natural products, cancer therapeutics and environment, stimulate the conversion of 5 mC to 5 hmC in vivo, and increase 5 hmC in 5751 genes in cells. 5 hmC increase is associated with significantly altered gene expression of 3414 genes. Interestingly, in quinone-treated cells, labile iron-sensitive protein ferritin light chain showed a significant increase at both mRNA and protein levels indicating a role of iron regulation in stimulating Tet-mediated 5 mC oxidation. Consistently, the deprivation of cellular labile iron using specific chelator blocked the 5 hmC increase, and a delivery of labile iron increased the 5 hmC level. Moreover, both Tet1/Tet2 knockout and dimethyloxalylglycine-induced Tet inhibition diminished the 5 hmC increase. These results suggest an iron-regulated Tet-dependent DNA demethylation mechanism mediated by redox-active biomolecules.

ALKBH4-dependent demethylation of actin regulates actomyosin dynamics.

Regulation of actomyosin dynamics by post-transcriptional modifications in cytoplasmic actin is still poorly understood. Here we demonstrate that dioxygenase ALKBH4-mediated demethylation of a monomethylated site in actin (K84me1) regulates actin-myosin interaction and actomyosin-dependent processes such as cytokinesis and cell migration. ALKBH4-deficient cells display elevated K84me1 levels. Non-muscle myosin II only interacts with unmethylated actin and its proper recruitment to and interaction with actin depend on ALKBH4. ALKBH4 co-localizes with the actomyosin-based contractile ring and midbody via association with methylated actin. ALKBH4-mediated regulation of actomyosin dynamics is completely dependent on its catalytic activity. Disorganization of cleavage furrow components and multinucleation associated with ALKBH4 deficiency can all be restored by reconstitution with wild-type but not catalytically inactive ALKBH4. Similar to actin and myosin knock-out mice, homozygous Alkbh4 mutant mice display early embryonic lethality. These findings imply that ALKBH4-dependent actin demethylation regulates actomyosin function by promoting actin-non-muscle myosin II interaction.

The chromatin-remodeling factor CHD4 coordinates signaling and repair after DNA damage.

In response to ionizing radiation (IR), cells delay cell cycle progression and activate DNA repair. Both processes are vital for genome integrity, but the mechanisms involved in their coordination are not fully understood. In a mass spectrometry screen, we identified the adenosine triphosphate-dependent chromatin-remodeling protein CHD4 (chromodomain helicase DNA-binding protein 4) as a factor that becomes transiently immobilized on chromatin after IR. Knockdown of CHD4 triggers enhanced Cdc25A degradation and p21(Cip1) accumulation, which lead to more pronounced cyclin-dependent kinase inhibition and extended cell cycle delay. At DNA double-strand breaks, depletion of CHD4 disrupts the chromatin response at the level of the RNF168 ubiquitin ligase, which in turn impairs local ubiquitylation and BRCA1 assembly. These cell cycle and chromatin defects are accompanied by elevated spontaneous and IR-induced DNA breakage, reduced efficiency of DNA repair, and decreased clonogenic survival. Thus, CHD4 emerges as a novel genome caretaker and a factor that facilitates both checkpoint signaling and repair events after DNA damage.

HCLK2 is required for activity of the DNA damage response kinase ATR.

ATR is a protein kinase that orchestrates the cellular response to replication problems and DNA damage. HCLK2 has previously been reported to stabilize ATR and Chk1. Here we provide evidence that human HCLK2 acts at an early step in the ATR signaling pathway and contributes to full-scale activation of ATR kinase activity. We show that HCLK2 forms a complex with ATR-ATRIP and the ATR activator TopBP1. We demonstrate that HCLK2-induced ATR kinase activity toward substrates requires TopBP1 and vice versa and provides evidence that HCLK2 facilitates efficient ATR-TopBP1 association. Consistent with its role in ATR activation, HCLK2 depletion severely impaired phosphorylation of multiple ATR targets including Chk1, Nbs1, and Smc1 after DNA damage. We show that HCLK2 is required for and stimulates ATR autophosphorylation and activity toward different substrates in vitro. Furthermore, HCLK2 depletion abrogated the G(2) checkpoint and decreased survival of cells after exposure to DNA damaging agents and replicative stress. Overall, our data suggest that HCLK2 facilitates ATR activation and, therefore, contributes to ATR-mediated checkpoint signaling. Importantly, our results suggest that HCLK2 functions in the same pathway as TopBP1 but that the two proteins regulate different steps in ATR activation.

Dysregulation of CD47 and the ligands thrombospondin 1 and 2 in multiple myeloma.

CD47 and thrombospondin 1 and 2 (TSP1 and TSP2) expression were analysed by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction in fluorescence-activated cell sorted plasma cells (PCs) from patients at consecutive stages of multiple myeloma (MM) development. 80% of MM patients, but only 39% of patients with monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) expressed CD47; median expression level increased 10-fold with progression from MGUS to MM. Elevated TSP1/TSP2 levels occurred in bone marrow cultures from MM patients compared with healthy donors. CD47 and TSP1/TSP2 may have a potential role in the pathophysiology of MM, probably in the interaction between MM PCs and the microenvironment.